.URAL.  TEXT-BOOK 
SERIES 


FORAGE 

111 

A1SJ  T  •  S 
III      1     O 

1 

AND  THEIR 
CULTURE 

PI  PR  R 

1      1    IT  ;  JL«^  -p%i 

Mia'HI  ILHII'IW 

L,  M.  BAl  LE  Y 
B       EDITOR 

Ube  IRural  ZText^Boofe  Series 

EDITED  BY  L.  H.  BAILEY 


FORAGE  PLANTS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE 


Hural  EexfciSoofc  Series 


MANN,  BEGINNINGS  IN  AGRICULTURE. 
WARREN,  ELE.MENTS  OF  AGRICULTURE. 
WARREN,  FARM  MANAGEMENT. 
LYON  AND  FIPPIN,  SOIL  MANAGEMENT. 
J.  F.  DUGGAR,  SOUTHERN  FIELD  CROPS. 
B.  M.  DUGGAR,  PLANT  PHYSIOLOGY. 
HARPER,  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  FOR  SCHOOLS. 
MONTGOMERY,  CORN  CROPS. 
WHEELER,  MANURES  AND  FERTILIZERS. 
LIVINGSTON,  FIELD  CROP  PRODUCTION. 
WIDTSOE,  IRRIGATION  PRACTICE. 
PIPER,  FORAGE  PLANTS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE. 
Others  in  preparation. 


FORAGE  PLANTS  AND 
THEIR  CULTURE 


BY 


CHARLES    V.    PIPER,    M.S. 

// 

AGROSTOLOGIST  IN  CHARGE  OF  FORAGE  CROP  INVESTIGATIONS 

BUREAU   OF   PLANT   INDUSTRY,    UNITED   STATES 

DEPARTMENT    OF    AGRICULTURE 


f|0tk 

THE   MACMILLAN    COMPANY 
1916 

All  rights  reserved 


COPYRIGHT,  1914, 
BY  THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  August,  1914.      Reprinted 
March,  1915;   February,  August,  1916. 


J.  S.  Gushing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

THE  exceedingly  diversified  climatic  conditions  in  North 
America  have  led  to  the  cultivation  of  an  unusually  large 
number  of  plant  species  for  forage  production.  Some  of 
these  are  successful  or  important  over  but  a  comparatively 
small  area,  and  not  one  is  capable  of  profitable  cultivation 
over  the  whole  region.  The  climatic  conditions  of  some 
parts  of  North  America,  especially  the  dry  regions  and  the 
southernmost  states,  are  not  closely  duplicated  in  any  part 
of  Europe.  This  fact  has  necessitated  the  introduction  of 
numerous  grasses  and  legumes  from  other  regions  to  secure 
forage  plants  capable  of  profitable  cultivation.  The  success 
of  these  endeavors  has  resulted  in  the  utilization  of  many 
forage  crops  practically  unknown  in  Europe,  such  as  numer- 
ous varieties  of  sorghum,  cowpeas,  soybeans,  Japan  clover, 
Florida  beggarweed,  velvet  bean,  Bermuda-grass,  Rhodes- 
grass,  and  many  others.  In  some  sections,  there  is  still 
need  of  better  adapted  or  more  productive  forage  crops. 
Extensive  experimental  investigations  have  been  conducted 
with  only  a  few  forage  crops  in  America,  so  that  there  yet 
remains  much  to  be  learned  concerning  most  of  the  others. 

The  aim  of  the  author  has  been  to  present  as  concisely 
as  practicable  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  with  ref- 
erence to  each  forage  crop  grown  in  America,  and  it  is  hoped 
that  no  important  contributions  to  the  subject  have  been 
omitted. 

The  illustrations  are  mostly  those  which  have  been  used 
in  various  publications  of  the  United  States  Department  of 

v 

355430 


vi  PREFACE 

Agriculture,  the  seed  illustrations  being  reproductions  of 
the  unequalled  drawings  of  Professor  F.  H.  Hillman. 

The  bringing  together  of  the  scattered  results  of  Ameri- 
can research  with  some  references  to  those  of  Europe  will, 
it  is  hoped,  reveal  to  students  the  phases  of  the  subject 
which  need  further  investigation. 

In  preparing  this  volume  the  author  wishes  to  acknowl- 
edge the  aid  he  has  received  from  his  colleagues,  B..  A. 
Oakley,  J.  M.  Westgate,  H.  N.  Vinall,  W.  J.  Morse,  M.  W. 
Evans,  H.  L.  Westover,  and  Katherine  S.  Bort. 


CHARLES   V.    PIPER. 


WASHINGTON,  D.C., 
January,  1914. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  I.  —  INTRODUCTION        .         .         .  .         .         .         1 

Definitions. — Knowledge  of  Forage  Crops  Compared  with 
Other  Crops.  —  Forage  Crops  and  Civilization.  —  Forage 
Crops  in  Europe  and  America. — Perennial  Hay  Plants 
in  Europe  and  America. —Botany  of  Forage  Crops.— Ag- 
gressiveness Necessary  in  Perennial  Forage  Crops.  —  Char- 
acteristics of  Grasses.  —  Legumes.  —  Root  Nodules.  —  The 
Nodule  Organism.  —  Forms  of  Root  Nodules.  • —  Natural 
Inoculation.  —  Artificial  Inoculation.  —  Dependence  of  Leg- 
umes on  Root  Nodules. 

CHAPTER  II. — PRESERVATION  OF  FORAGE.         ....       21 

Preservation  of  Forage. — Time  of  Cutting.  —  Haymaking 
in  Dry  Weather.  —  Curing  of  Hay.  —  Haymaking  under 
Humid  Conditions.  —  Special  Devices  to  Facilitate  Hay 
Curing.  —  Completion  of  Curing.  —  Shrinkage  of  Stored 
Hay.  —  Loss  of  Hay  or  Fodder  in  the  Field.  —  Relation  of 
Green  Weight  to  Dry  Weight.  —  Loss  of  Substance  from 
Growing  Plants.  —  Hay  Stacks.  —  Spontaneous  Combustion. 
—  Statistics  of  Hay  Yields. —  Brown  Hay. — Silage. — The 
Nature  of  Silage  Fermentation.  —  Advantages  of  Silage.  — 
Crops  Adapted  to  Ensiling.  —  Soiling  or  Soilage.  —  Soiling 
Systems. 

CHAPTER  III. — CHOICE  OF  FORAGE  CROPS         .         .         .         .       47 

What  Determines  the  Choice  of  a  Forage  Crop.  —  Special 
Purposes  for  which  Forage  Crops  are  Grown.  —  Adaptation 
to  Conditions.  — Yield.  — Yields  under  Irrigation.  — -Cost  of 
Seeding.  —  Time  of  Harvesting.  —  Ease  of  Harvesting  and 
Curing.  —  Demands  or  Prejudices  of  the  User.  —  Feeding 
Values.  —  Feeding  Experiments.  —  Chemical  Analyses.  — 
Chemical  Composition  as  Affected  by  Soil  Fertility  and  by 
Fertilizers.  —  Chemical  Composition  as  Affected  by  Stage  of 
Maturity.  —  Variation  in  Chemical  Composition  from  Un- 
ascertained Causes.  —  Digestible  Nutrients.  —  Net  Energy 
Values,  r— Starch  Values.  — Comparison  of  Feeding  Values, 
vii 


CONTENTS 


PAGB 

CHAPTER  IV.  —  SEEDS  AND  SEEDING  ......      67 

Quality.  —  Genuineness.  —  Purity.  —  Viability.  —  Actual 
Value  of  Seed.  —  Superiority  of  Local  Seed.  —  Standards  of 
Purity  and  Germination.  —  Adulteration  and  Misbranding.  — 
Color  and  Plumpness  of  Seeds.  —  Age  of  Seeds.  —  Source  of 
Seeds.  —  Seed  Inspection.  —  Sampling.  —  Guaranteed  Seeds. 

—  Fungous    Diseases.  —  Hard    Seeds.  —  Most    Dangerous 
Weed  Seeds.  —  Weight  of  Seeds.  —  Number  of  Seeds  in  One 
Pound.  —  Seed  Production  of  Forage  Crops,  United  States, 
1909.  —  Seeding  in  Practice.  —  Rate  of  Seeding.  —  Time  of 
Seeding.  —  Depth  of  Planting.  —  Experimental  Results.  — 
Nurse  Crops. 

CHAPTER  V.  —  MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES    .         .         .         .         .92 

Meadow  Mixtures.  —  Composition  of  Meadow  Mixtures. 

—  Treatment  of  Hay  Meadows.  —  Scarifying  Old  Meadows. 

—  Reseeding  Old  Meadows.  —  Fertilizers  for  Hay  Crops.  — 
Top-dressing  for  Aftermath  or  Rowen.  —  Acreage  of  Im- 
proved Pasture  in  the  United  States.  —  Area  of  Wild  Pasture 
in    the    United    States.  —  Most    Important   Tame    Pasture 
Plants.  —  Palatability  of  Pasture  Grasses.  —  Pasture  Yield 
as  Determined  by  Number  of  Cuttings.  —  Pasture  Mixtures. 

—  Treatment  of  Permanent  Pastures.  —  Pasturing  Meadows. 

—  Carrying  Capacity.  —  Temporary  Pastures.  —  Temporary 
Pasture  Crop  Systems  for  Hogs.  —  Bloating  or  Hoven. 

CHAPTER  VI.  —  THE  STATISTICS  OF  FORAGE  CROPS  .         .         .     118 

Classification  of  Crops  in  Statistical  Returns.  —  Forage 
Crops  in  General,  United  States,  1909.  —  Hay  and  Forage  by 
Classes,  United  States,  1909.  —  Forage  Statistics  for  Canada. 


CHAPTER  VII. —TIMOTHY 122 

Botany.  —  Agricultural  History.  —  Agricultural  Impor- 
tance. —  Climatic  Adaptations.  —  Soil  Adaptation.  —  Ad- 
vantages of  Timothy.  —  Rotations.  —  Seed.  —  Preparation 
of  Seed  Bed.  —  Heavy  Seeds  or  Light  Seeds. — Rate  of 
Seeding.  —  Depth  of  Seeding.  —  Methods  of  Seeding.  — 
Seed  Bed.  —Fertilizers  for  Timothy.  —  Lime.  — Irrigation. 
—  Time  to  Cut  for  Hay.  —  Yields.  —  Pasture.  —  Pollination. 


CONTENTS  IX 

PAGE 

—  Seed  Production.  —  Life  History.  —  Life  Period.  —  Depth 
of  Root  System.  — Proportion  of  Roots  to  Tops.  —  Regional 
Strains. — Feeding  Value. — Injurious  Insects.  —Diseases. 
— Variability.  —  Disease  Resistance.  — Breeding.  —  Methods 
of  Breeding.  —  Desirable  Types  of  Improved  Timothies.  — 
Comparison  of  Vegetative  and  Seed  Progeny.  — Field  Trials 
with  Improved  Strains. 

CHAPTER  VIII.  —  BLUE-GRASSES,    MEADOW-GRASSES   AND   RED- 
TOP       154 

Kentucky  Blue-grass  (Poa  pratensis)  :  Botany  ;  Adapta- 
tions ;  Importance  ;  Characteristics  ;  Culture  ;  Fertilizers ; 
Yields  of  Hay  ;  Seed  Production  ;  Seed  ;  Hybrids.  —  Canada 
Blue-grass  (Poa  compressa*)  :  Botany ;  Seed ;  Culture ; 
Adaptations  ;  Importance.  —  Texas  Blue-grass  (Poa  arach- 
nifera).  —  Fowl  Meadow-grass  (Poa  triflora).  —  Rough- 
stalked  Meadow-grass  (Poa  trimalis).  —  Wood  Meadow-grass 
(Poa  nemoralis).  — Redtop  :  Names  ;  Botany  ;  Agricultural 
History  ;  Adaptations  ;  Characteristics ;  Importance  ;  Vari- 
ability ;  Regional  Strains ;  Culture  ;  Yield  of  Hay  ;  Seed 
Production  ;  Seed. 

CHAPTER  IX.  —  ORCHARD-GRASS,  TALL  OAT-GRASS  AND  BROME- 

GRASSES 176 

Orchard-grass  :  Description ;  Botany  ;  Agricultural  His- 
tory ;  Climatic  Adaptations  ;  Soil  Preferences  ;  Adaptation 
to  Shade;  Variability;  Advantages  and  Disadvantages;  Im- 
portance ;  Seeding  of  Orchard-grass ;  Life  History ;  Har- 
vesting for  Hay  ;  Yields  of  Hay  ;  Harvesting  Orchard-grass 
for  Seed  ;  Weeds ;  Seed ;  Sources  of  Seed  ;  Utilization  of 
Stubble  and  Aftermath  ;  Mixtures  ;  Pasturage  Value ;  Feed 
Value  ;  Value  as  a  Soil  Binder  ;  Improvement  by  Selec- 
tion;. Pests. —  Tall  Oat-grass  (Arrhenatherum  elatius'}  : 
Names  ;  Botany  ;  Agricultural  History ;  Adaptations  ;  Im- 
portance ;  Characteristics  ;  Seeding ;  Hay  ;  Seed  Production  ; 
Seed;  Mixtures. — Brome-grass  :  Names  and  Description; 
Botany ;  Agricultural  History  ;  Adaptations ;  Depth  of 
Roots  ;  Method  of  Seeding  ;  Rate  of  Seeding  Brome-grass ; 
Time  to  Cut  for  Hay ;  Hay ;  Fertilizers  ;  Treatment  of 
Meadows  ;  Seed  Production  ;  Seed  ;  Pasture  Value  ;  Mix- 
tures ;  Variability. 


X  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  X.  —  OTHER  GRASSES  OF  SECONDARY  IMPORTANCE      .     204 

Meadow  Fescue  (Festuca  elatior)  :  Botany  and  History; 
Characteristics  ;  Adaptations  ;  Importance ;  Seeding  ;  Hay  ; 
Seed  Production  •  Seed  ;  Pasture  Value  ;  Pests  ;  Hybrids.  — 
Tall  Fescue.  —  Reed  Fescue  (Festuca  arundinacea} . — Peren- 
nial or  English  Rye-grass  (Lolium perenne)  :  Name;  Ag- 
ricultural History  ;  Botany  ;  Characteristics  ;  Adaptation  ; 
Importance  ;  Agricultural  Varieties  ;  Culture  ;  Hay  Yields  ; 
Seed  Production;  Seed. — Italian  Rye-grass:  Character- 
istics ;  Botany ;  Agricultural  History  ;  Adaptations  ;  Cul- 
ture ;  Irrigation  ;  Hay  Yields  ;  Seed  Production  ;  Seed.  — 
Slender  Wheat-grass  (Ayropyron  tenerum).  —  Western 
Wheat-grass  (Agropyron  occidentals'). 

CHAPTER  XI. — PERENNIAL  GRASSES  OF  MINOR  IMPORTANCE     .     223 

Sheep's  Fescue  and  Closely  Related  Species  :  Importance 
and  Culture;  Seed. — Red  Fescue  (Festuca  rubra). — 
Meadow  Foxtail  (Alopecurus  pratensis)  :  Characteristics  ; 
Adaptations;  Culture;  Seed. — Sweet  Vernal  Grass  (An- 
thoxantlium  odoratum}  :  Botany;  Culture.  —  Reed  Canary- 
grass  (Phalaris  arundinacea}  :  Botany  and  Agricultural 
History;  Characteristics;  Culture. —  Velvet-grass  (Holcus 
lanatus). — Erect  Brome  (Bromus  erectus). — Yellow  Oat- 
grass  (Trisetumflavescens). — Crested  Dogstail  (Cynosurus 
cristatus) . 

CHAPTER  XII.  —  SOUTHERN  GRASSES 287 

Bermuda-grass  (Cynodon  dactylon}  :  Botany;  Character- 
istics ;  Agricultural  History  ;  Adaptations  ;  Variability  ;  Im- 
portance ;  Culture  ;  Yields  of  Hay  ;  Rootstocks ;  Pasture 
Value;  Feeding  Value;  Seed  Production. — Johnson-grass 
(Andropogon  halepensis}  :  Botany;  Agricultural  History; 
Adaptation  and  Utilization  ;  Poisonous  Qualities ;  Seed.  — 
Japanese  Sugar-cane  (Saccharum  officinarum}  :  History  and 
Characteristics  ;  Adaptations  ;  Planting  ;  Culture  ;  Utiliza- 
tion ;  Yields ;  Seed  Cane.  — Carpet-grass  (Axonopus  com- 
pressus) .  —  Paspalum  ( Paspalum  dilatatum) .  —  Para-grass 
(Panicum  barbinode).  —  Guinea-grass  (Panicum  maxi- 
mum').—  Rescue-grass  {Bromus  unioloides).  —  Crab-grass 
(Diyitaria  sanguinalis}.  —  Natal-grass  (Tricholcena  rosea}. 


CONTENTS  XI 

PAGE 

CHAPTER  XIII.  —  SORGHUMS 260 

Sorghum  (Andropogon  sorghum)  :  Botany  ;  Agricultural 
History  ;  Adaptations  ;  Root  System  ;  Agricultural  Groups  ; 
Importance  ;  Culture  ;  Time  of  Sowing ;  Seeding  in  Rows ; 
Seeding  Broadcast ;  Number  of  Cuttings ;  Yields  of  For- 
age ;  Seed  ;  Agricultural  Varieties ;  Seed-production  ;  Utili- 
zation ;  Soilage ;  Fodder ;  Hay  ;  Silage ;  Sorghum  and 
Legume  Mixtures ;  Pasture  Value  ;  Poisoning ;  Diseases  ; 
Insect  Pests  ;  Sorghum  Improvement.  —  Sudan-grass  (An- 
dropogon sorghum  var.)  :  Description;  Adaptations;  Cul- 
ture; Utilization;  Hay;  Hay  Mixtures  ;  Chemical  Analysis  ; 
Seed-production. 

CHAPTER  XIV.  —  MILLETS  AND  OTHER  ANNUAL  GRASSES          .     285 

The  Principal  Millets.  — Foxtail  Millet  (Setaria  italica}  : 
Botany  ;  Agricultural  History  ;  Adaptations  ;  Importance  ; 
Agricultural  Varieties  ;  Seeding ;  Hay ;  Feeding  Value ;  Si- 
lage from  Foxtail  Millet ;  Injurious  Effects ;  Seed-produc- 
tion ;  Seed  ;  Diseases  and  Insects.  —  Japanese  Barnyard 
Millet  (Echinochloa  frumentacea) . — Broom-corn  Millet 
(Panicum  miliaceum).  —  Comparative  Hay  Yields  in  Pounds 
to  the  Acre  of  Different  Millets  at  Several  Experiment  Sta- 
tions. —  Shama  Millet  (Echinochloa  colona  or  Panicum  colo- 
num).  —  Ragi,  Finger-millet  or  Coracan  (Eleusine  coracana}. 

—  Texas  Millet  (Panicum  texanum). — Cereals  for  Hay. — 
Chess  or  Cheat  (Bromus  secalinus). — Canary-grass  (Pha- 
laris  canariensis}.  — Penicillaria  (Pennisetum  glaucum).  — 
Teosinte  (Euchlcena  mexicana). 

CHAPTER  XV. — ALFALFA    ........     305 

Agricultural  History.  —  Origin  of  the  Common  Names.  — 
Heat  Relations.  —  Cold  Relations.  —  Humidity  Relations.— 
Soil  Relations.  —  Distribution  of  the  Alfalfa  Crop. — Botan- 
ical Varieties  of  Alfalfa.  —  Cultivated  Varieties  of  Alfalfa. — 
Importance  of  the  Varieties.  —  Influence  of  Source  of  Seed. 

—  Comparison  of  Regional  Strains. — Important  Character- 
istics of  Alfalfa.  —  Life  Period.  —  Roots.  —  Relations  to  Soil 
Moisture.  —  Seedlings.  —  Rootstocks.  —  Shoots.  —  Relative 
Proportion  of  Leaves,  Stems  and  Roots.  —  Seed-bed. — In- 
oculation. —  Rate  of  Seeding.  —  Time  of  Seeding.  —  Method 
of  Seeding.  — Nurse-crops.  —  Clipping.  —  Winter-killing.  — 


Xll  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Time  to  Cut  for  Hay. — Number  of  Cuttings. — Quality  of 
Different  Cuttings. — Irrigation. — Time  to  Apply  Irrigating 
Water.  —  Winter  Irrigation.  —  Relation  of  Yield  to  Water 
Supply.  —  Care  of  an  Alfalfa  Field.  —  Alfalfa  in  Cultivated 
Rows.  —  Alfalfa  in  Mixtures.  —  Alfalfa  in  Rotations.  —  Pas- 
turing Alfalfa.  — Use  as  a  Soiling  Crop.  —  Alfalfa  Silage.  — 
Alfalfa  Meal.  —  Seed-production.  —  Pollination.  —  Seeds.  — 
Viability  of  Seed.  —  Alfalfa  Improvement.  —  Breeding 
Methods.  —  Weeds.  —  Dodder  or  Love-vine.  —  Diseases.  — 
Insects. 

CHAPTER  XVI.  —  RED  CLOVER 361 

Botany  of  Red  Clover.  —  Agricultural  History.  —  Impor- 
tance and  Distribution. — Soil  Relations.  —  Climatic  Rela- 
tions. —  Effect  of  Shade.  —  Life  Period.  —  Agricultural 
Varieties.  —  Comparison  of  Regional  Strains.  —  Time  of 
Seeding.  —  Rate  of  Seeding.  —  Seedlings.  —  Seeding  with  a 
Nurse-crop.  —  Seeding  without  a  Nurse-crop.  —  Depth  of 
Planting.  —  Winter-killing.  — Treatment  of  Clover  Fields.  — 
Fertilizers.  —  Gypsum.  —  Lime.  —  Irrigation.  —  Red  Clover 
in  Mixtures.  —  Use  in  Rotations.  —  Effect  of  Clover  in  Rota-  . 
tions  when  Only  the  Stubble  is  Turned  Under.  —  Volunteer 
Crops.  —  Stage  to  Cut.  —  Composition  at  Different  Stages.  — 
Number  of  Cuttings. —Yields  of  Hay.  —  Relation  of  Green 
Weight  to  Hay  Weight.  —  Feeding  Value.  —  Comparative 
Feeding  Value  of  the  First  and  Second  Crops  of  Hay.  — 
Soiling.  — Pasturage. —  Silage.  —  Number  of  Flowers  and 
Seeds  to  the  Head.  —  Pollination  and  Fecundation.  — Seed- 
production. —  Harvesting  the  Seed  Crop. — Yields  of  Seed. 
—  Statistics  of  Seed  Crop.  — Value  of  the  Straw.  —  Seed.  — 
Color  of  Seeds.  —  Roots.  —  Shoots.  —  Proportion  of  Roots 
to  Shoots.  —  Relative  Proportions  of  Stems,  Leaves  and 
Flower  Heads. — Diseases.  —  Clover  Sickness.  —  Reduction 
of  Acreage  Probably  Due  Mainly  to  Clover  Sickness.  —  In- 
sects. —  Improvement  of  Red  Clover  by  Breeding.  — Disease- 
resistant  Strains. 

CHAPTER    XVII.  —  OTHER     CLOVERS  —  ALSIKE,    HUNGARIAN, 

WHITE  AND  SWEET  ....     405 

Alsike  Clover  ( Trifolium  hybridum)  :  Botany  of  Alsike ; 
Agricultural  History  ;   Adaptations  ;    Characteristics  of  Al- 


CONTENTS  Xlll 


sike  Clover ;  Regional  Strains ;  Importance  ;  Culture ;  Hay  ; 
Seed  Production ;  Seed;  Value  for  Pasturage.  —  Hungarian 
Clover  (  Trifolium  pannonicum) .  —  White  Clover  ( Trifolium 
ripens}  :  Botany ;  Description  ;  Agricultural  History  ;  Adap- 
tations ;  Importance  of  White  Clover ;  Seeding ;  Yields ; 
Pollination  ;  Seed-production ;  Seed,  —  Ladino  White  Clover. 
—  Sweet  Clover  (Melilotus  alba}  :  Botany  and  Description; 
Adaptations ;  Agricultural  History ;  Seeding ;  Securing  a 
Stand  ;  Relative  Proportions  of  Tops  and  Roots  of  Sweet 
Clover ;  Utilization ;  Advantages  and  Disadvantages  ;  Yield ; 
Seed-production  ;  Seed ;  Related  Species. 

CHAPTER  XVIII. — CRIMSON  CLOVER  AND  OTHER  ANNUALS      .     426 

Crimson  Clover  (  Trifolium  incarnatum)  :  Botany  ;  Agri- 
cultural History  ;  Description  ;  Adaptations  ;  Importance  ; 
Variability  and  Agricultural  Varieties ;  Seeding ;  Time  of 
Sowing  ;  Methods  of  Sowing ;  Time  to  Cut  for  Hay  ;  Yields  ; 
Other  Uses  of  Crimson  Clover ;  Seed-production  ;  Seed.  — 
Shaftal  or  Persian  Clover  (Trifolium  suaveolens'). — Ber- 
seem  (Trifolium  alexandrinum} . — Yellow  Trefoil  (Medi- 
cago  lupulina). —  Bur  Clovers  (Medicago  spp.). —  Dakota 
Vetch  (Hosackia  americana  or  Lotus  americanus). 

CHAPTER  XIX. — PEAS  AND  PEA-LIKE  PLANTS  ....     441 

Pea  (Pisum  sativum)  :  Botany  and  History  ;  Description  ; 
Adaptations ;  Importance  ;  Agricultural  Varieties  ;  Seeding  ; 
Development  of  the  Plant ;  Hay  ;  Peas  and  Oats ;  Pasture 
Value ;  Garden  Pea  Vines ;  Irrigation  ;  Seed-production  ; 
Seed.  —  Pea  Weevil  (Laria  pisorum  or  Bruchus  pisorum}.  — 
Chick-pea  (Cicer  arietinum}.  —  Grass-pea,  Vetchling  or 
Chickling  Vetch  (Lathy rus  sativus). 

CHAPTER  XX. — VETCHES  AND  VETCH-LIKE  PLANTS  .         .     456 

Kinds  of  Vetches.  Common  Vetch  (Vicia  saliva)  :  De- 
scription ;  Botany  and  Agricultural  History  ;  Adaptations ; 
Importance  ;  Agricultural  Varieties ;  Culture ;  Time  of  Sow- 
ing ;  Rate  of  Seeding ;  Harvesting  for  Hay ;  Pasturing ; 
Feeding  Value  ;  Rotations  ^  Fertilizers ;  Lime  ;  Silage ; 
Seed-production;  Seed.— Hairy  Vetch  (Vicia  villosa)  : 
Description ;  Botany ;  Climatic  Adaptations ;  Soil  Prefer- 
ences ;  Rate  of  Seeding ;  Time  of  Seeding ;  Depth  of  Seeding ; 


XIV  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Inoculation  ;  Uses  of  the  Crop  ;  Pollination  ;  Harvesting  for 
Hay;  Feeding  Value;  Use  in  Rotations;  Advantages  and 
Disadvantages  ;  Growing  Seed ;  Sources  of  Seed  ;  Seeds.  — 
Narrow-leaved  Vetch  (Vicia  angnstifolia). — Purple  Vetch 
(Vicia  atropurpurea). — Woolly-pod  Vetch  (Vicia  dasy- 
carpa). — Scarlet  Vetch  (Vicia ful gens). — Ervil  or  Black 
Bitter  Vetch  (Vicia  ervilia}. — Narbonne  Vetch  (Vicia 
narbonnensis).  —  Horse  Bean  ( Vicia  faba).  —  Bird  or  Tufted 
Vetch  (Vicia  cracca).  — Tangier  Pea  (Lathy  rus  ting  itanus}. 

—  Flat-podded  Vetchling  (Lathyrus  cicera~).  —  Ochrus  (La- 
thyrus   ochrus).  —  Comparison   of   Vetch    Species. — Fenu- 
greek   (Trigonella  fcenum-grcecum). —  Lupines    (Lupinus 
spp.~).  —  Serradella     (Ornithopus     sativus).  —  Square-pod 
Pea  (Lotus  tetragonolobus~) . 

CHAPTER  XXI. — COWPEAS 491 

Cowpea  (Vigna  sinensis}  :  Botanical  Origin ;  Agricultural 
History ;  Adaptations  ;  Importance  ;  Uses  of  the  Crop  ;  Varie- 
tal Distinctions  ;  Life  Period  ;  Pods  and  Seeds ;  Correlations ; 
Important  Varieties ;  Rate  and  Method  of  Seeding ;  Time  of 
Seeding;  Inoculation;  Number  of  Cuttings;  Hay;  Hay 
Yields;  Feeding  Value;  Cowpeas  in  Broadcast  Mixtures; 
Cowpea  Mixtures  not  Broadcasted ;  Growing  Cowpeas  for 
Seed ;  Pollination  ;  Seed  Yield ;  Proportion  of  Seed  and 
Hulls  ;  Seeds  ;  Viability  ;  Root  System  ;  Disease  Resistance ; 
Insect  Enemies. 

CHAPTER  XXII. — SOYBEANS 513 

Agricultural  History.  —  Botany.  —  Description.  —  Soil 
Adaptations.  —  Climatic  Adaptations.  —  Importance.  —  De- 
sirable Characters  in  Soybean  Varieties.  —  Commercial  Va- 
rieties. —  Preparation  of  Soil  and  Cultivation.  —  Rate  of 
Seeding.  —  Time  of  Seeding.  —  Method  of  Seeding.  —  Depth 
of  Planting.  —  Inoculation.  —  Life  Period.  —  Time  to  Cut 
for  Hay.  —  Hay  Yields.  —  Fertilizers.  —  Soybean  Mixtures. 

—  Silage.  —  Rotations.  —  Feeding  Value  of  Soybean  Hay.  — 
Seed-production.  —  Pollination.  —  Seed    Yield.  —  Seeds.  — 
Pests.  — Breeding.  — Soybeans  and  Cowpeas  Compared. 

CHAPTER  XXIII.  — OTHER  HOT-SEASON  ANNUAL  LEGUMES        .     539 

Lespedeza  or  Japan  Clover  :  Description ;  Agricultural 
History  ;  Adaptations  ;  Culture  ;  Pasturage  Value  ;  Hay  ; 


CONTENTS  XV 

PAGE 

Seed-production. — Florida  Velvet  Bean  (Stizolobium  deer- 
ingianum)  :  Description  and  History ;  Utilization  ;  Other 
Species  of  Stizolobium. — Peanut  (Arachis  hypogcea).— 
Florida  Beggar  weed  (Desmodium  tortuosum  or  Meibomia 
tortuosa).  — The  Jack  Bean  (Canavalia  ensiformis) .  —  Murig 
Bean  (Phaseolus  aureus).  —  Urd  (Phaseolus  mungo\  — 
Moth  Bean  (Phaseolus  aconitifolius} .  —  Adzuki  Bean  (Pha- 
seolus angularis). — Bonavist  or  Hyacinth  Bean  (Dolichos 
lablab). —  Guar  (Cyamopsis  tetragonoloba) . 

CHAPTER  XXIV. — MISCELLANEOUS  PERENNIAL  LEGUMES          .     559 

Sainfoin  (  Onobrychis  mcicefolia)  :  Description  ;  Agricul- 
tural History;  Culture;  Seed;  American  Data. — Sulla  or 
Spanish  Sainfoin  (Hedysarum  coronarium). — Kudzu  (Pue- 
raria  thunbergiana) . — Flat  Pea  (Lathyrus  silvestris  var. 
wagneri). —  Kidney  Vetch  (Anthyllis  vulneraria).  — Goat's 
Rue  (Galega  officinalis) . — Bird's-foot  Trefoil  (Lotus  corni- 
culatus}.  — Astragalus  falcatus.  — Furze  (  Ulex  europceus). 

CHAPTER  XXV. — MISCELLANEOUS  HERBS  USED  AS  FORAGE     .     571 

Mexican  Clover  (Eichardsonia  scabra).  —  Prickly  Pear 
( Opuntia spp.}.  —  Sunflower  (Helianthus annuus). —  Spurrey 
(Spergula  sativa).  —  Yarrow  (Achillea  millefolium) .  — 
Sachaline  (Polygonum  sachalinense) .  —  Burnet  ( Sanguisorba 
minor).  — Buckhorn  (Plantago  lanceolata).  — Prickly  Com- 
frey  (Symphytum  asperrimum}.  —  Australian  Saltbush 
(Atriplex  semibaccata) . 

CHAPTER  XXVI.  —  ROOT  CROPS  AND  OTHER  COMPARABLE  FOR- 
AGES .         .         .        .  .         .         .     583 

Root  Crops:  Importance  of  Root  Crops;  Kinds  of  Root 
Crops ;  Comparison  of  Various  Root  Crops  ;  Roots  Compared 
with  Corn  and  Sorghum.  —  Rape  (Brassica  napus}:  Impor- 
tance ;  Seeding ;  Place  in  Rotations ;  Sowing  with  Another 
Crop ;  Utilization ;  Carrying  Capacity  of  Rape  Pastures  ; 
Yields;  Insects.  —  Kale  (Brassica  oleracea)  :  Diseases; 
Yields  of  Kale,  Cabbage  and  Other  Brassicaceous  Plants. — 
Jerusalem  Artichoke  (Helianthus  tuberosus). — Chufa  (Cy- 
perus  esculentus).  — Cassava  (Manihot  utilissima). 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGURE  PAGE 

1.  Distribution  of  hay  and  forage  in  the  United  States      .         .        6 

2.  Distribution  of  cattle  in  the  United  States  —  1  dot  equals 

1000  head.     Compare  distribution  with  that  of  forage 

in  Fig.  1 8 

3.  Ligule  of  a  grass  leaf      ........  14 

4.  Spikelet  of  orchard-grass 14 

5.  A  single  floret  of  orchard-grass 14 

6.  Noxious  weed  seeds  found  in  farm  seeds  (No.  1)  :  a,  Sand 

bur;  b,  wild  oat;  c,  chess;  d,  darnel;  e,  quack-grass; 
f,  dock  ;  g,  black  bindweed;  h,  Russian  thistle  ;  i,  corn 
cockle  ;  j,  white  campion ;  k,  bladder  campion  ;  1,  night- 
flowering  catchfly ;  m,  cow  cockle  ;  n,  pennycress  :  o, 
field  peppergrass  ;  p,  large-fruited  false  flax ;  q,  small- 
fruited  false  flax;  r,  ball  mustard;  s,  black  mustard; 
t,  English  charlock 77 

7.  Noxious  weed  seeds  found  in  farm  seeds  (No.  2)  :  a,  Indian 

mustard;  b,  hare's  ear  mustard;  c,  tumbling  mustard; 
d,  wild  carrot;  e,  field  bindweed;  f,  flax  dodder;  g, 
clover  dodder  ;  h,  small-seeded  alfalfa  dodder ;  i,  field 
dodder ;  j,  large-seeded  alfalfa  dodder ;  k,  corn  grom- 
well ;  1,  rat-tail  plantain  ;  m,  buckhorn ;  n,  ragweed ; 
0,  gum  weed;  p,  wild  sunflower;  q,  oxeye-daisy  ;  r,  Can- 
ada thistle  ;  s,  bull  thistle  ;  t,  wild  chicory  ...  79 

8.  Map  showing  percentage  of  cultivated  land  in  forage  crops 

1909-1910  116 

9.  Timothy    (Phleum  pratense}  :    a,   glumes ;    b,   floret  with 

glumes  removed       .         .         .  .         .         .         .     123 

10.  Timothy.     Florets  showing  the  different  parts      .        .         .     123 

11.  Distribution  of  timothy  1909-1910.     Figures  equal  acres       .     124 

12.  Kentucky  blue-grass  (Poa pratensis}  :  a,  spikelet ;  b, lemma, 

showing  attached  tuft  of  hairs         .....     155 


xvill  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


13.  A  spikelet  and  florets  of  Kentucky  blue-grass :  a,  spikelet  as 

it  appears  at  maturity ;  b,  the  same,  having  the  florets 
spread  apart,  showing  jointed  rachilla  ;  c,  back  view  of 
a  floret,  showing  the  lemma  (1) ;  d,  front  view  of  the 
floret,  showing  the  edges  of  the  lemma  (1),  the  palet  (2), 
and  the  rachilla  segment  (3)  ;  e,  the  grain,  or  kernel  .  156 

14.  Mixture  of  seeds  of  Kentucky  blue-grass  (a)  and  Canada 

blue-grass  (b).  The  Kentucky  blue-grass  seeds  are 
broadest  at  the  center,  pointed,  and  have  a  distinct  ridge 
on  each  side.  Canada  blue-grass  seed  are  mostly  broad- 
est near  one  end,  blunt,  and  smooth  on  the  sides  .  .  162 

15.  Seeds  of  redtop  representing  the   "fancy"   grade  of  the 

trade  :  a,  different  views  of  seeds  having  the  white, 
papery,  inner  chaff ;  b,  two  views  of  a  grain,  or  kernel, 
with  the  inner  chaff  removed ;  c,  the  same  nearly  natu- 
ral size  ...  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  174 

16.  Chaff  of  redtop  seed  :  a,  Whole  spikelets,  usually  devoid  of 

seed  in  "chaffy"  grades;  b,  separated  scales  of  the 
same  ;  a  and  b  represent  the  outer  chaff  of  the  seed. 
(Enlarged.)  .  't  ,  t.  .  .  .  .  175 

17.  Orchard-grass  (Dactylis  glomerata}  :  a,  spikelet;  b,  floret; 

c,  stamens  and  pistil ;  d,  ligule ;  e,  section  of  node         .     177 

18.  Mixture  of  seeds  of  orchard-grass  (a),  meadow  fescue  grass 

(b) ,  and  English  rye-grass  (c).  The  orchard-grass  seeds 
are  distinguished  from  the  others  by  their  slender,  curved 
form.  The  meadow  fescue  and  rye-grass  seeds  are  dis- 
tinguished by  the  difference  in  the  section  of  the  seed- 
cluster  axis  (rachilla  segment)  which  each  bears.  (En- 
larged.)   185 

19.  Tall  oat-grass  (Arrhenatherum  elatius)  :  a,  spikelet ;  b,  the 

two  florets        .         .        .-.•..        .        '.        .     189 

20.  Brome-grass  (Bromus  inermis}  :  a,  spikelet;  b,  floret,  dor- 

sal view ;  c,  floret,  vertical  view 196 

21.  Meadow  fescue  (Festuca  elatior'} :  a,  spikelet        .        .        .     205 

22.  Italian  rye-grass  (Lolium  multifloruni)  :  a,  spikelet ;  b,  c, 

lemma  ;  d,  e,  seed 214 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  XIX 

FIGURE  PAGE 

23.  Slender  wheat-grass    (Agropyron    tenerum)  :    a,    glumes; 

b,  spikelet  with  glumes  removed  .....     220 

24.  Sheep's  fescue  (Festuca  ovina)  :  a,  glumes  ;  b,  spikelet  with 

glumes  removed       ........     224 

25.  Crested  dogstail  (Cynosurus  cristatus) :  a,  b,  fertile  spike- 

lets  ;  c,  sterile  spikelet     .        .         .        .         .         .         .     235 

26.  Bermuda-grass  (Cynodon  dactylon}  :  a,  spikelet;  b,  floret  .     238 

27.  Paspalum  dilatatum  :  a,  showing  arrangement  of  spikelets  ; 

b,  a  single  spikelet ;  c  and  d,  floret         ....     252 

28.  Rescue-grass  (Bromus  unioloides) :  a,  glumes  ;  b,  lemma  ; 

c,  palea   ..........    257 

29.  Foxtail  millet  (Setaria  italica}  :  a  and  b,  dorsal  and  ventral 

views  of  a  spikelet ;  c,  lemma          .....     287 

30.  Texas  millet  (Panicum  texanum)  :  a  and  b,  dorsal  and  ven- 

tral views  of  a  spikelet ;  c,  lemma  .....     297 

31.  Canary  grass  (Phalaris  canariensis)     .....     300 

32.  Map  of  the  United  States,  showing  production  of  alfalfa  hay 

by  tons  in  1909.     Each  dot  equals  2000  tons  .         .         .311 
83.   Map  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  showing  acreage  of 

alfalfa.     Figures  equal  acres   ......     312 

34.  An  implement  for  harrowing  fields  of  alfalfa         .         .         .     341 

35.  A  well-set  cluster  of  alfalfa  pods 347 

36.  Alfalfa  seeds :    a,   individual  seeds,   showing  variation  in 

form ;  b,  edge  view  of  a  seed,  showing  scar ;  c,  natural 
size  of  seeds    .........    349 

37.  Dodder  or  love- vine  growing  on  alfalfa          ....     355 

38.  Adult  form  of  the  alfalfa  weevil  (Phytonomus  posticus)  : 

Adults  clustering  on  and  attacking  a  spray  of  alfalfa. 
(Slightly  enlarged) 359 

39.  Red  clover 362 

40.  Map  showing  acreage  of  red  clover  in  the  United  States, 

1909,  and  Canada,  1910 363 

41.  Stages  in  the  development  of  red  clover  seed  :  a  and  c,  flower 

in  prime  and  ripe  ;  b  and  d,  immature  and  mature  seed 
vessel ;  e,  mature  seed 388 


XX  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGURE  PAGE 

42.  A  bunching  attachment  or  swather  on  an  ordinary  mower    .     390 

43.  Seeds  of  red  clover  :  1,  side  view  and,  2,  edge  view  of  seeds  ; 

3,  the  triangular  form  indicated;  4,  a  seed  cut  length- 
wise ;  5,  a  seed  cut  crosswise,  showing  the  embryo ;  a, 
a  seed  scar  ;  b,  a  stemlet  (radicle)  of  the  embryo  ;  c,  seed 
leaves  (cotyledons)  of  the  embryo ;  6,  a  pod  of  red  clo- 
ver ;  7,  natural  size  of  seeds 392 

44.  Sketch  showing  the  effect  of  the  clover-seed  chalcis  fly: 

calyx  (a),  seed  capsule  (b),  and  seeds  (c  and  d).     At  c 

the  mature  insect  is  shown  in  the  act  of  emerging  .        .    402 

45.  Alsike  clover  seeds  :  a,  seeds  showing  variation  in  form  and 

surface  appearance,  enlarged  ;  b,  natural  size  of  seeds  .     409 

46.  Sweet  clover  .        .'       .    •    .        .        .        .        .        .         .    417 

47.  Seeds  of  sweet  clover :  a,  seeds  showing  variation  in  form 

and  size ;  b,  natural  size  of  seeds ;  c,  a  pod  of  sweet 
clover  .  .  .;  ]'  :.  ''  .  .  .  '  .  .  424 

48.  Crimson  clover       .    ''    .' "     .        .         .         ...         .426 

49.  Seeds  of  crimson  clover  (enlarged  and  natural  size)      .         .     434 

50.  Seeds  of  yellow  trefoil :  a,  seeds  showing  variation  in  form 

and  size  ;  b,  natural  size  of  seeds  ;  c,  oval  form  of  tre- 
foil seeds  indicated  ;  d,  a  pod  of  trefoil  ....  436 

51.  Field  pea 442 

52.  Seeds  of  common  vetch  (Vicia  sativa).     (Natural  size)         .  467 

53.  Seed  soar  of  common  vetch.     (Enlarged)      ....  467 

54.  Types  of  mottling  of  seeds  of  common  vetch  :  a  and  b,  from 

light  and  dark  seeds,  respectively.     (Enlarged)      .         .  467 

55.  Hairy  vetch 468 

56.  Seeds  of  hairy  vetch  (Vicia  villosa').     Natural  size       .        .  476 

57.  Seed  scar  of  hairy  vetch:  a  and  b,  forms  showing  the  white, 

central  slit  of  some  scars.     (Enlarged)   .  .        .     476 

58.  Tangier  pea   .    • .     483 

59.  Cowpea 492 

60.  Soybean          .         .         .         .        .         .         .        .         .        .512 

61.  Roots  of  soybean,  showing  nodules        .         .         .         .        .     525 

62.  Root  crops.  1909-1910.     Figures  equal  acres       ...       .        .585 


LIST   OF  PLATES 

ATE  FACING  PAGE 

I.     Panicles  of  Canada  Blue-grass  and  Kentucky  Blue-grass       164 

II.     A  Field  of  Gooseneck  Sorgo  in  Texas       .  .        .         .     266 

III.  Sudan-grass  and  Natural  Hybrids     .         .  .   •  ,    .         .     280 

IV.  A  Field  of  Sudan-grass  in  Virginia  .         .  .        .         .282 

A  Field  of  Sumac  Sorgo  in  Texas 


A  Field  of  Red  Clover  in  Washington  State 
VI.     Hairy  Vetch  and  Rye        .......     474 

VII.     Groit  Cowpeas  in  a  Broadcasted  Field  in  Virginia   .         .     496 

VIII.     Seeds    of    Soybeans,    Cowpeas,    Velvet-beans,    Pods    of 

Florida  Velvet-bean  and  Yokohama  Bean  .        .         .     510 


FORAGE  PLANTS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE 


CHAPTER   I 
INTRODUCTION 

DOMESTIC  animals  are  an  indispensable  part  of  a  good 
agriculture,  even  though  they  may  have  no  place  in  the 
business  of  some  of  the  high-class  specialty  farmers.  To 
rear  animals  necessitates  forage ;  and  the  more  important 
the  animal  production,  the  greater  is  the  necessity  that  the 
forage  be  grown  as  a  crop  and  be  made  a  part  of  the  farm 
scheme.  The  forage  crops  are  now  of  many  kinds,  and 
they  are  taking  their  places  in  the  regular  farm-manage- 
ment plans  of  the  forward  farmer.  These  crops  also  have 
their  own  value  as  marketable  products,  constituting  one 
of  the  important  cash  incomes  of  the  farm. 

1.  Definitions.  —  Forage  includes  any  vegetable  mat- 
ter, fresh  or  cured,  eaten  by  herbivorous  animals,  such 
as  grain,  hay,  pasturage,  green  feed,  roots  and  silage. 
The  term  feed  is  synonymous  with  forage,  although  some- 
times restricted  to  grain.  Fodder  and  stover  are  also 
identical  in  original  meaning,  but  in  the  United  States  are 
used  with  special  significations. 

Forage  crops  include  only  those  plants  grown  primarily 
for  feed  and  of  which  animals  consume  all  or  much  of  the 
vegetative  parts ;  that  is,  herbage,  or  roots.  Most  cereal 
crops  are  also  grown  for  hay,  pasturage  or  silage,  and 
when  thus  grown  may  be  considered  forage  crops.  Sev- 
eral plants  cultivated  in  other  regions  as  cereals  are  in  the 
United  States  grown  mainly  or  wholly  for  forage.  Among 


2  .  t  .  FORAGE,  PLANTS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE 

these  are  the  grain  sorghums,  penicillaria,  foxtail  millet 
and  prosq  or  broom-corn  millet.  The  distinction  between 
cereals  and  forage  crops  in  such  cases  is  arbitrary.  Such 
a  plant  is  a  cereal  when  grown  primarily  for  the  grain, 
and  a  forage  when  grown  primarily  for  the  herbage. 

Fodder  (German  f utter)  really  means  the  same  as  feed. 
In  the  United  States  the  term  is  used  mainly  in  reference 
to  corn  cut  before  the  plant  is  fully  mature,  and  from 
which  the  ears  are  not  removed.  The  stems  and  leaves 
when  dried  and  after  the  ears  are  removed  is  called  stover. 
In  the  Southern  States  the  term  fodder  is  applied  to  the 
dried  leaves  and  tops  of  the  corn  plant,  removed  while 
green,  and  before  the  ears  are  fully  mature. 

The  terms  fodder  and  stover  are  also  used  in  connec- 
tion with  the  sorghums  and  similar  coarse  grasses. 

Hay  consists  of  the  entire  dried  herbage  of  compara- 
tively fine-stemmed  grasses  or  other  forage  plants.  It  is 
commonly  dried  or  cured  in  the  sun,  but  artificial  drying 
apparatus  has  been  used.  The  process  of  curing  is  not 
merely  one  of  drying,  as  grass  dried  quickly  with  artificial 
heat  is  quite  different  from  that  cured  with  relative 
slowness.  Under  the  latter  conditions  fermentative 
changes  take  place,  due  mainly  to  enzymes,  which  give 
freshly  cured  hay  a  characteristic  aroma  varying  with  the 
plant  used.  This  odor  is  much  less  evident  in  plants 
quickly  dried. 

Brown  hay  is  prepared  by  stacking  grass  or  clover  when 
only  half  cured,  on  account  of  which  it  undergoes  fer- 
mentation with  heating.  The  product  is  brown  and 
compact.  Brown  hay  is  commonly  prepared  in  regions 
where  on  account  of  climatic  conditions  dry  curing  is 
difficult.  It  is  somewhat  intermediate  between  hay  and 
silage  in  quality. 


INTRODUCTION  3 

Soiling  is  a  term  used  to  denote  feeding  with  green 
plants,  when  the  plants  are  cut  and  carried  to  the  animals. 
Next  to  pasturing,  this  is  the  most  primitive  way  of  feed- 
ing animals.  It  is  practically  the  only  way  that  cut 
herbage  is  used  in  half-civilized  countries. 

Silage  is  prepared  by  compacting  green  herbage  in  an 
air-tight  receptacle  in  which  it  undergoes  fermentation. 
In  America  the  principal  crop  used  for  silage  is  corn,  and 
this,  after  cutting  in  small  pieces  so  that  it  will  pack 
closely,  is  placed  in  a  specially  constructed  silo  to  insure 
fermentation  under  nearly  anaerobic  conditions.  The 
material  is  ensilaged  in  the  silo. 

Straw  is  a  term  applied  to  the  dried  remnants  of  a  crop 
from  which  the  seed  has  been  thrashed.  The  term  is 
used  most  commonly  in  reference  to  the  small  grains, 
wheat,  oats,  rye  and  barley,  but  is  properly  applied  also 
to  thrashed  flax,  cowpeas,  millets,  etc. 

Root  crops  is  applied  to  forage  crops  whose  principal 
value  lies  in  the  subterranean  portion,  whether  true  roots 
or  tubers.  They  are  extensively  grown  for  forage  only  in 
countries  where  they^can  be  produced  more  cheaply  than 
grain  feeds.  Their  culture  is  therefore  extensive  in 
northern  Europe,  but  has  thus  far  received  very  little 
attention  in  America  except  in  Canada,  the  Northeastern 
States  and  in  the  humid  belt  along  the  Pacific  coast,  all 
being  regions  not  well  adapted  to  the  culture  of  corn. 
Root  crops  require  a  considerable  amount  of  hand  labor 
and,  partly  on  this  account  and  partly  because  of  their 
greater  cost,  are  not  popular  where  plants  like  corn,  sor- 
ghum or  similar  crops  can  be  grown. 

Feeds  are  conveniently  distinguished  according  to 
nutritive  value  into  concentrates  with  high  feeding  value 
and  roughage,  or  roughness,  with  relatively  low  feeding 


FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR    CULTURE 

value.  Concentrates  include  grains,  or  products  thereof,  oil 
meal,  and  for  hogs  tankage  and  similar  products.  Rough- 
age includes  hay,  fodder,  straw,  silage,  roots,  pasturage. 

Roughages  have  been  considered  to  be  made  up  of 
two  or  three  general  classes.  Very  commonly  two  such 
classes  are  recognized,  one  composed  of  the  grass  hays, 
roots,  silage  and  stover,  which  are  low  in  protein;  the 
other  composed  of  the  legumes  and  also  grass  in  the  form 
of  pasturage  and  rowen,  which  differ  in  having  a  higher 
protein  content. 

Another  classification  recognizes  three  groups ;  namely, 
1.  legumes;  2.  mixed  legumes  and  grasses;  3.  grasses 
(including  corn).  Perhaps  a  fourth  group  should  be 
added ;  namely,  the  straws,  which,  however,  are  very 
variable  in  value. 

A  meadow  on  a  farm  is  a  field  planted  to  grasses  or 
legumes  or  both  for  hay.  Commonly  the  term  implies 
perennial  meadows,  but  the  phrase  "  annual  meadows  " 
is  occasionally  used.  In  northern  regions  the  word 
meadow  is  also  used  for  natural  grass  areas,  especially  if  wet. 

The  second  growth  of  most  grasses,  especially  those 
which  bloom  but  once  a  season  is  called  aftermath  or  rowen. 

Grass.  —  Besides  its  use  in  a  purely  botanical  sense, 
the  word  grass  is  often  used  in  agriculture  to  mean  any 
plant  growing  for  hay  or  pasture.  The  crop  in  a  rotation 
is  thus  called  grass  even  if  it  be  clover  or  alfalfa. 

A  pasture  is  a  field  in  which  animals  graze  on  herba- 
ceous plants.  Any  crop  thus  utilized  is  spoken  of  as 
a  pasture  crop.  Permanent  pastures  are  such  as  can  be 
grazed  upon  for  several  years  and  contain  perennial  plants 
or  a  succession  of  annuals,  or  both. 

Browsing  is  sometimes  used  as  synonymous  with  graz- 
ing, but  usually  the  word  browse  is  restricted  to  shrubs 
of  which  animals  eat  the  leaves  or  twigs. 


IN  TE  OD  UCTION  5 

Wild  pastures,  whether  wooded  or  prairie,  are  often 
called  ranges  or  range  lands,  especially  in  the  West. 

2.  Knowledge  of  forage  crops  compared  with  other 
crops.  —  A  critical  survey  of  the  present  state  of  agro- 
nomic knowledge  concerning  forage  crops  as  revealed  both 
in  literature  and  in  practice  makes  clear  the  fact  that 
there  is  not  nearly  as  much  accurate  information  about 
these  crops  as  there  is  concerning  others  such  as  cereals, 
cotton,  tobacco,  etc.  The  reasons  for  this  are  not  far  to 
seek.  First,  forage  crops  are  only  rarely  grown  as  money 
crops,  and  the  farmer  seldom  knows  with  any  degree  of 
accuracy  what  yields  he  obtains.  His  forage  crops  are, 
therefore,  not  brought  into  yearly  comparison  with  those 
of  his  neighbors,  so  that  no  definite  criterion  becomes 
established  as  to  what  are  good  and  what  poor  yields. 
Consequently,  there  is  lacking  the  spur  for  better  effort 
brought  about  by  the  knowledge  of  the  yields,  and  espe- 
cially the  money  returns  secured  by  neighboring  farmers. 
Second,  there  is  a  larger  variety  of  plants  grown  for  forage, 
no  one  of  which  is  cultivated  over  so  wide  an  area  as  any 
of  the  important  cereal  crops.  There  is,  consequently, 
a  smaller  amount  of  information  about  each  of  the  many 
forage  crops  than  there  is  concerning  any  one  of  the  few 
cereal  crops. 

The  purely  agronomic  knowledge  available, — that  is, 
that  relating  to  yield  as  affected  by  environmental, 
cultural  or  other  factors,  namely,  climate,  soil,  fertilizers, 
culture,  irrigation,  variety,  rate  of  seeding,  rotation,  — 
is  partly  the  result  of  definite  experiments,  but  largely 
the  experience  of  farmers.  Experimental  results,  where 
available,  are  more  enlightening  than  those  based  on  farm 
returns,  but  a  vastly  greater  amount  of  experimental 
data  is  necessary  for  a  better  understanding  of  the  com- 


6  FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 


INTRODUCTION 


plex  factors  which  affect  yield.  To  the  critical  student, 
the  relative  paucity  of  accurate  knowledge  concerning 
yield  relations  will  be  apparent  as  the  data  concerning 
each  crop  is  studied. 

3.  Forage  crops  and  civilization.  —  The  culture  of  crops 
grown  purely  as  feed  for  herbivorous  animals  is  mainly 
a  product  of  European  civilization.  Even  yet  such  crops 
are  seldom  grown  except  in  regions  settled  or  governed 
by  Europeans.  Less  civilized  peoples  have  depended  for 
the  sustenance  of  their  flocks  wholly  or  mainly  on  natural 
pasturage ;  or,  where  the  population  is  dense,  as  in  India 
and  China,  have  utilized  as  forage  only  the  refuse  or 
surplus  of  crops  grown  for  human  food,  supplemented  by 
any  pasturage  available.  To  a  slight  extent,  it  is  true, 
alfalfa  was  cultivated  in  ancient  Persia,  and  perhapis  red 
clover  also,  but  this  exception  only  emphasizes  the  fact 
that  the  culture  of  most  forage  crops  originated  and 
developed  in  Europe. 

In  America  the  relative  importance  of  forage  to  other 
staple  crops  has  been  still  more  developed.  This  is  easily 
seen  in  a  comparison  of  the  forage  crops  with  the  total 
value  of  all  field  crops  in  India,  Europe  and  America :  — 

TABLE  SHOWING  THE  ACREAGES  OF  ALL  CROPS,  OF  FORAGE 
AND  THE  NUMBER  OF  CATTLE  AND  HORSES  IN  THE  UNITED 
STATES,  CANADA,  EUROPE  AND  INDIA. 


COUNTRY 

ALL  CROPS 

FORAGE 

CATTLE  AND 
HORSES 

YEA* 

Acres 

Acres 

United  States 
Canada  .  . 
Europe  .  . 
India  .  .  . 

301,325,598 
33,047,783 
792,644,963 
225,892,425 

72,280,776 
9,156,573 
92,789,168 

4,881,742 

85,952,446 
9,353,000 
181,989,750 
103,677,987 

1909 
1911 
1906-11 
1910 

FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CCLTrRE 


I 


fi 

x 


IN  TROD  UCTION  9 

The  actual  value  of  the  forage  grown  is,  of  course,  far 
greater  than  the  hay  and  forage  of  the  census  returns. 
To  these  figures  need  to  be  added  the  value  of  pasturage 
and  of  the  straw  of  various  crops.  It  is  probable  that  each 
one  of  the  103,000,000  of  cattle  in  India  consumes  about 
as  much  feed  as  does  each  of  the  86,000,000  in  the  United 
States,  but  in  India  practically  all  of  the  forage  is  either 
straw  or  wild  grass.  While  the  growing  of  crops  purely 
to  feed  animals  is  partly  based  on  sentimental  grounds, 
its  justification  lies  in  the  fact  that  it  is  sound  economy. 

4.  Forage  crops  in  Europe  and  in  America.  —  In  com- 
paring the  forage  crops  grown  in  America  and  in  Europe, 
it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  there  are  great  differences 
in  the  climate  and  some  in  the  soil  which  in  large  measure 
account  for  the  relative  importance  of  particular  forage 
plants  in  the  two  continents.  So  far  as  climate  is  con- 
cerned, only  California  corresponds  closely  with  the 
countries  of  southern  Europe ;  only  the  northwest  Pacific 
coast  region  is  at  all  comparable  with  England  and  northern 
Germany;  and  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Great  Plains 
is  not  very  different  from  eastern  Russia.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  northeastern  portion  of  the  United  States  and 
adjacent  Canada  differs  from  any  portion  of  Europe  in 
having  hot  humid  summers,  and  the  winters  too  are  colder 
than  those  of  western  Europe;  the  Southern  States, 
especially  the  cotton  region,  are  still  more  different  in 
climate  from  any  portion  of  Europe. 

Almost  without  exception  the  plants  of  southern  Europe 
succeed  well  in  California,  those  of  middle  western 
Europe  on  the  north  Pacific  coast,  and  those  of  eastern 
Russia  on  the  Great  Plains. 

In  marked  contract,  but  very  few  European  forage 
plants  are  well  adapted  to  the  Southern  States,  the  most 


10          FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THETR   CULTURE 

important  being  primarily  winter  crops;  namely,  vetch, 
bur  clover,  white  clover  and  redtop. 

Likewise,  in  the  Northern  States  and  Canada,  many 
important  European  forages  have  found  but  little  place, 
but  four  of  them  have  on  account  of  their  marked  adap- 
tation for  the  region  attained  relatively  a  much  higher 
importance  than  they  have  in  Europe.  These  four  are 
timothy,  red  clover,  Kentucky  blue-grass  and  redtop. 
The  utilization  of  these  over  much  of  the  eastern  United 
States  to  the  practical  exclusion  of  many  of  the  other 
perennial  grasses  and  legumes  much  used  in  Europe  is 
striking.  Over  the  area  in  question  at  least  50  per  cent 
of  the  hay  crop  is  made  up  of  timothy  and  red  clover 
alone,  and  probably  70  per  cent  of  the  improved  pastures 
of  Kentucky  blue-grass  and  redtop. 

Some  European  plants,  like  sainfoin,  are  not  grown  in 
America  because  there  are  no  chalky  soils;  others,  like 
the  lupines  and  serradella,  seem  poorly  adapted  to  with- 
stand summer  heat ;  and  many  of  the  perennial  grasses 
do  not  hold  their  own  in  pastures  and  meadows  in  com- 
petition with  the  more  aggressive,  better  adapted  species. 

5.  Perennial  hay  plants  in  Europe  and  America  com- 
pared. —  In  Europe  eleven  perennial  grasses  —  namely, 
perennial  rye-grass,  Italian  rye-grass,  orchard-grass, 
meadow  foxtail,  meadow  fescue,  tall  oat-grass,  yellow 
oat-grass,  velvet-grass,  timothy,  redtop  and  sweet  vernal 
grass, — and  five  perennial  legumes  —  namely,  red,  white 
and  alsike  clovers,  alfalfa  and  sainfoin,  —  may  be  con- 
sidered as  of  prime  importance. 

In  North  America,  if  we  except  alfalfa,  these  European 
grasses  are  well  adapted  only  to  the  area  north  of  latitude 
36°,  after  excluding  much  of  the  semi-arid  region.  South 
of  this  latitude  few  of  them  are  worth  cultivating. 


INTRODUCTION  11 

The  general  practice  in  Europe  is  to  sow  both  meadows 
and  pastures  to  complex  mixtures  of  grasses.  In  marked 
contrast  the  American  .practice  is  to  sow  pure  cultures  or 
very  simple  mixtures. 

Of  the  above  list  only  seven  can  be  said  to  be  much 
cultivated  in  America;  namely,  timothy,  redtop  and 
orchard-grass,  alfalfa,  and  red,  white  and  alsike  clovers. 
The  remainder  are  relatively  much  neglected,  though  most 
of  them  have  distinct  value,  at  least  in  special  areas. 
Neglect  of  their  greater  use  is  perhaps  due  to  the  ascen- 
dancy which  timothy  has  in  American  favor  and  to  an 
actual  lack  of  knowledge  concerning  their  merits. 

6.  Botany  of  forage  crops.  —  The  greater  numbers  of 
forage  crops  are  either  grasses  (Graminece)  or  legumes 
(Leguminosce) .  There  are  definite  reasons  why  this  i^ 
the  case.  On  prairie  or  meadow  lands  in  all  parts  of  the 
world,  grasses  make  up  a  large  percentage  of  the  herbage. 
This  is  particularly  true  in  areas  where  wild  herbivorous 
animals  existed  in  large  numbers,  as  on  our  western 
prairies  and  in  south  Africa.  The  two  facts  are  corre- 
lated. Without  the  grasses  the  abundant  herds  of  animals 
could  not  have  existed,  and  with  the  abundant  herds  few 
plants  are  so  well  adapted  as  the  grasses  to  withstand 
heavy  grazing  and  trampling.  The  reason  for  this  lies 
in  the  fact  that  the  growing  part  of  a  grass  leaf  is  near  its 
base  and  so  is  not  injured  when  the  upper  part  is  bitten 
off,  while  with  most  other  plants  the  growing  point  is 
terminal  and  therefore  easily  destroyed  by  grazing  animals. 
Furthermore,  many  grasses  are  amply  provided  with 
vegetative  means  of  spreading  and  reproducing,  so  that 
even  if  continuously  cropped  short,  they  nevertheless 
survive.  The  other  plants  most  like  the  grasses — namely, 
the  rushes  and  sedges  —  are,  with  a  few  exceptions,  not 


12  FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 

much  relished  by  animals,  as  their  leaves  are  either  very 
tough  or  very  harsh.  Among  the  characteristics  a  grass 
must  have  to  be  valuable  under,  cultivation  are  satis- 
factory yielding  capacity  for  the  purpose  employed,  whether 
pasture,  soiling,  silage  or  hay ;  good  feeding  quality,  — 
that  is,  palatable,  not  too  woody,  and  without  any  in- 
jurious physiological  effects ;  good  reproductive  characters, 
such  as  abundant,  easily  gathered  seed,  or  ready  multi- 
plication by  vegetative  methods ;  and  aggressiveness,  or 
ability  to  maintain  itself  under  the  conditions  of  culture, 
and  yet  not  be  too  troublesome  as  a  weed. 

Many  grasses  otherwise  satisfactory  are  but  little  used 
because  the  seed  cannot  be  grown  cheaply;  others  are 
distinctly  unpalatable ;  and  most  coarse  perennial  grasses 
will  not  endure  either  mowing  or  close  grazing. 

Legumes  are  next  in  value  to  grasses,  both  as  wild 
natural  pasture  plants  and  under  cultivation.  They  are 
peculiar  in  having  a  higher  content  of  protein  than  most 
other  plants.  About  100  species  have  been  utilized  more 
or  less  for  forage.  To  be  satisfactory  for  cultivation 
as  forage  crops,  the  same  general  characteristics  are  re- 
quired as  for  the  grasses,  but  many  legumes  are  poisonous 
or  have  other  deleterious  qualities.  The  seed  habits, 
also,  are  frequently  very  unsatisfactory. 

Apart  from  the  grasses  and  legumes  a  medley  of  other 
plants  are  more  or  less  important  as  forage  crops.  Most 
prominent  is  the  mustard  family  (Cruciferce) ,  which  in- 
cludes rutabagas,  rape,  kale  and  turnips. 

The  other  families  of  plants  contribute  very  few  and 
mostly  unimportant  crops.  The  mangel  belongs  to  the 
Chenopodiaceoe ;  the  carrot  and  parsnip  to  the  Umbelli- 
feras;  spurrey  to  the  Caryophyllaceoe;  burnet  to  the 
Rosacea ;  yarrow  and  artichokes  to  the  Composite? ; 


INTRODUCTION  13 

cassava  to   the   Euphorbiacece ;    Mexican   clover   to   the 
Rubiacece;  and  chufas  to  the  Cyperacece. 

7.  Aggressiveness  necessary  in  perennial  forage  crops. 
—  Aggressiveness,  or  ability  to  hold  the  soil  against  weeds 
and  other  competitors,  is  an  exceedingly  important  char- 
acter in  all  perennial  meadow  or  pasture  crops,  and  often 
important  in  annuals.  Plants  of  Old  World  origin  are 
in  this  respect  far  superior  to  those  of-  American  origin, 
at  least  for  cultivation  in  the  New  World.  With  but  a 
single  exception,  every  perennial  hay  plant  cultivated  in 
America  is  of  Old  World  origin,  and  among  perennial 
pasture  plants  there  are  but  few  exceptions.  Many  of 
the  native  American  grasses  are  equal  to  Old  World 
grasses  in  yield  and  nutritiousness,  but  with  perhaps  a 
few  exceptions  they  lack  in  ability  to  retain  possession 
of  cultivated  land  against  the  competition  of  weeds. 
The  reasons  for  this  are  not  apparent,  but  the  fact  scarcely 
admits  of  doubt.  Grasses  are  not  alone  peculiar  in  this 
respect,  as  most  of  our  troublesome  weeds  are  also  of 
Old  World  origin.  Some  of  these  weedy  grasses  and  other 
plants  furnish  good  forage,  and  are  therefore  welcome. 
Among  such  are  Japan  clover,  white  clover,  narrow- 
leaved  vetch,  bur  clover,  alfilaria,  sweet  clover,  crab-grass, 
Bermuda- grass  and  blue-grass.  A  few  temperate  Ameri- 
can plants  have  shown  similar  aggressive  propensities 
when  transplanted  to  the  Old  World,  such  as  water- weed, 
Elodea  canadensis,  and  horse-weed,  Erigeron  canadensis. 
Many  tropical  American  plants  introduced  into  the  Orient 
have  prospered  amazingly,  where  they  behave  as  weeds, 
in  a  manner  exactly  analogous  to  European  plants  in- 
troduced into  the  United  States.  All  this  points  to  aggres- 
siveness as  being  in  part  at  least  a  phenomenon  of  plants 
transferred  to  a  new  but  similar  environment. 


14 


FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 


8.  Characteristics  of  grasses.  —  Botanically  the  grasses 
form  a  •  sharply  defined  family  characterized  by  having 
jointed,  usually  hollow,  stems,  with  cross  partitions  at  the 
nodes;  two-ranked,  parallel-veined  leaves,  the  basal 
portion  or  sheath  inclosing  the  stem,  and  bearing  where  it 
joins  the  blade  a  peculiar  appendage,  the  ligule  (Fig.  3)  ; 
flowers  very  small,  mostly  perfect,  but  sometimes  uni- 
sexual, consisting  of  3  stamens,  rarely  1,  2  or  6 ;  one 
pistil  with  two  papillate  or  plumose  stigmas ;  and  2, 


FIG.    3 
-    Ligule 
of  a  grass 
leaf. 


FIG.  4.  —  Spikelet 
of  orchard-grass. 


FIG.  5.  —  A  sin- 
gle floret  of  orchard- 
grass. 


rarely  3,  small  perianth  segments,  the  lodicules  at  the 
base  of  the  ovary;  flowers  always  in  spikelets,  with  2- 
ranked  bracts  or  scales,  arranged  on  an  axis,  the  rachilla. 
The  two  lower  bracts  are  called  glumes,  and  each  suc- 
ceeding one  is  a  lemma.  Above  and  opposite  the  lemma 
is  the  2-nerved  palea,  which  incloses  the  floret.  The 
florets  are  usually  as  numerous  as  the  lemmas,  but 
the  upper  ones  are  often  sterile. 

The  fruit  is  a  caryopsis  or  grain,  with  small  lateral 
embryo  and  relatively  large  starchy  endosperm.  For 
the  most  part  grass  flowers  are  wind  pollinated,  but  some 
on  which  the  stamens  do  not  become  exserted  are  self- 
pollinated,  as  in  the  case  of  wheat. 


INTR  O  D  UCTION  1 5 

Agricultural  grasses  are  either  annuals  or  perennials. 

The  annuals  are  mostly  grown  as  cereals  in  some  part 
of  the  world  at  least,  but  several  are  grown  in  America 
primarily  as  forage,  such  as  millets  and  sorghums. 

The  perennials  may  be  distinguished  as  bunch  grasses, 
like  orchard-grass  and  timothy,  and  creeping  grasses, 
like  Kentucky  blue-grass  and  Bermuda.  In  the  former 
the  new  shoots  are  intravaginal;  that  is,  the  new  shoots 
do  not  break  through  the  lowest  sheath  but  grow  erect 
within  it;  in  the  creeping  grasses  the  shoots  are  extra- 
vaginal;  that  is,  they  pierce  the  lowest  sheath  and  for 
a  longer  or  shorter  distance  develop  as  rhizomes  below 
ground,  or  stolons  above  ground.  In  a  few  grasses,  like 
various-leaved  fescue,  both  types  of  shoots  are  formed. 

The  roots  of  all  grasses  are  very  slender  and  but  little 
branched.  Even  in  perennial  grasses  the  roots  usually 
live  but  one  season  and  then  new  ones  are  formed. 

To  possess  high  agricultural  value,  a  grass  must  be 
palatable  and  healthful ;  it  must  yield  well ;  and  above 
all,  it  must  have  good  seed  habits,  so  that  the  seed  can 
be  harvested  cheaply.  Even  in  the  best  of  the  perennial 
grasses  the  seed  is  relatively  inferior  in  viability,  as  com- 
pared with  other  crop  plants. 

9.    Legumes.  —  Legumes    or   pulses    are   distinguished 
botanically  by  having  the  leaves  alternate,  with  stipules 
and  mostly  compound  ;   flowers  usually  papilionaceous  — 
that  is,  like  a  pea  flower ;  pistil  simple,  becoming  in  fruit 
a  legume ;   embryo  usually  completely  filling  the  seed. 

Biologically,  most  leguminous  plants  are  remarkable 
for  their  ability  to  use  free  atmospheric  nitrogen,  by  the 
aid  of  certain  bacteria  that  form  nodules  on  the  roots. 

Most  of  the  cultivated  legumes  thrive  best  in  soil  con- 
taining a  high  content  of  lime,  but  others,  like  trefoil  and 


16  FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 

white  clover,  are  indifferent  to  lime.  A  few,  like  lupines 
and  serradella,  are  injuriously  affected  if  lime  be  added 
to  the  soil.  Perennial  legumes  have  as  a  rule  stout  roots 
which  serve  partly  as  storage  organs  for  reserve  food. 
Partly  on  this  account,  they  are  cut  for  hay  in  early  bloom, 
as  after  this  stage  reserve  stuff  is  deposited  in  the  roots. 

10.  Root  nodules.  —  On  the  roots  of  most  legumes  and 
a  few  other  plants  occur  nodules  or  tubercles.     Woronin 
in    1866   discovered   that   these    contained   bacteria-like 
organisms,  but  their  importance  was  not  realized  until 
Hellriegel  in  1887  demonstrated  that  leguminous  plants 
can  utilize   atmospheric    nitrogen  by  the   aid  of    these 
nodule   bacteria.     When   the   root   nodules   are   absent, 
legumes,  like  most  other  plants,  must  depend  on  com- 
bined nitrogen  in  the  soil. 

It  was  known  to  the  Romans  in  Pliny's  time  that 
certain  legumes  helped  succeeding  crops,  and  indeed 
legumes  mixed  or  in  rotation  with  other  crops  have  been 
used  in  India  and  China  probably  since  prehistoric  times. 
The  importance  of  leguminous  crops  is,  however,  more 
clearly  recognized  since  their  role  as  nitrogen  conservors 
has  been  discovered. 

11.  The  nodule  organism.  —  The  organism  causing  the 
nodules  in  legumes  is  now  called  Pseudomonas  radicicola. 
Apparently  it  is  but  one  and  the  same  species  that  causes 
the  nodules  on  legumes  and  on  such  plants  as  Alnus, 
Shepherdia,     Podocarpus,     Ceanothus    and    others.     The 
organism  occurs  in  different  physiological  forms,  for  it  is 
not  possible,  except  in  a  few  cases,  to  inoculate  a  legume 
of  one  genus  directly  with  the  nodule  bacteria  from  another. 
The  only  definitely  proved  case  of  this  is  Melilotus  and 
Medicago-,  alfalfa  being  readily  inoculated  by  sweet  clover. 
It  is  probable,  also,  that  the  bacteria  of  garden  peas  in- 


INTRODUCTION  17 

oculate  vetch  and  vice  versa,  but  this  lacks  proof,  as  does 
Nobbe's  contention  that  Pisum  will  inoculate  Phaseolus. 

12.  Forms    of   root   nodules.  —  The   root   nodules   on 
different  legumes  vary  greatly  in  size,  shape  and  abun- 
dance.    To  a  certain  extent  they  are  characteristic  for 
each  genus.     The  nodule  is  morphologically  a  modified 
rootlet.     In  many  legumes  it  is  always  simple,  but  in 
others  is  more  or  less  branched,  sometimes  into  a  coral- 
like  mass.     In  the  common  cultivated  clovers  the  nodules 
on  the  younger  roots  are  small  and  globose,  becoming 
club-shaped    and    often    bilobed.     On    older    roots    they 
become  more  branched  or  lobed. 

Alfalfa  produces  nodules  much  like  red  clover,  but 
usually  longer  and  more  branched. 

On  Canada  peas  and  the  vetches  the  nodules  are  still 
more  branched  and  fan-shaped  in  form.  Clusters  of 
these  often  form  globose  masses. 

In  the  cowpea,  peanut  and  most  beans,  the  nodules 
are  irregularly  globose  and  solid.  These  are  frequently 
as  large  as  a  pea  seed.  On  the  soybean,  the  nodules  are 
also  globose  but  marked  on  the  surface  with  raised  ridges. 

The  velvet  bean  produces  perhaps  the  largest  nodules 
of  any  legume.  These  are  sometimes  as  large  as  a  base- 
ball. Such  are  really  clusters  of  branched  nodules  but 
packed  together  very  densely. 

13.  Natural   inoculation.  —  Any   legumes    may    easily 
be  inoculated  on  new  land  by  scattering  soil  from  an  old 
field  where   the   same   legume   has  previously  produced 
nodules,  as  is  nearly  always  the  case  when  a  legume  crop 
is  successful.     This  method  was  used  in  Europe  before 
its  significance  was  discovered.     In  thus  inoculating  new 
land,  from  100  to  500  pounds  of  old  soil  should  be  used 
to  the  acre.     It  may  be  scattered  in  any  convenient  way, 


18  FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

but  preferably  with  a  drill  or  on  a  cloudy  day.  Sunlight 
is  destructive  to  the  bacteria,  so  the  inoculating  soil 
should  be  harrowed  in  unless  sown  with  a  drill. 

The  use  of  the  naturally  inoculated  soil  is  open  to  the 
objection  that  it  may  serve  to  spread  weeds,  insects  and 
plant  diseases,  especially  if  brought  from  a  distance. 

In  some  cases,  the  nodule  bacteria  are  undoubtedly 
carried  on.  the  surface  of  the  seeds,  especially  where  these 
are  trampled  out  by  animals.  Thus  plots  of  guar  (Ct/a- 
mopsis  tetragonoloba) ,  an  East  Indian  legume,  were  well 
inoculated  when  grown  for  the  first  time  at  Chillicothe, 
Texas,  although  no  closely  related  legume  occurs  in  North 
America.  In  this  case  it  seems  practically  certain  that 
the  bacteria  were  carried  on  the  seeds. 

Inoculation  of  the  soil  for  a  new  legume  is  sometimes 
secured  by  sowing  a  little  of  the  seed  in  mixtures,  as  alfalfa 
with  grass.  Frequently  some  of  the  plants  survive,  and 
when  this  happens  generally  to  scattered  plants  through- 
out a  field,  it  is  safe  to  conclude  that  the  soil  is  sufficiently 
well  inoculated. 

14.  Artificial  inoculation.  —  The  first  artificial  cultures 
of  Pseudomonas  radicicola  were  made  by  Beyerinck  in 
1888.  In  1896  Nobbe  introduced  commercial  cultures 
under  the  name  of  nitragin.  Commercial  cultures  have 
been  prepared  in  various  forms;  namely,  in  liquids,  upon 
agar  jelly,  in  dry  powders  and  on  cotton.  Moore  in  1904 
prepared  cultures  grown  on  media  poor  in  nitrogen  under 
the  idea  that  this  would  select  the  strains  most  efficient 
in  fixing  free  nitrogen,  and  that  these  cultures  would, 
therefore,  prove  beneficial  even  on  soils  already  inoculated 
for  any  particular  legume  by  providing  a  superior  strain. 
Attempts  have  also  been  made  to  prepare  cultures  adapted 
to  each  soil  by  growing  the  bacteria  in  media  prepared 


INTRODUCTION  19 

from  a  solution  of  the  particular  soil  to  be  inoculated. 
Whatever  method  is  employed,  it  is  necessary  to  prepare 
the  cultures  from  nodules  of  the  same  species  of  plant  for 
which  the  culture  is  intended. 

Beginning  with  the  introduction  of  nitragin,  many 
hundreds  of  inoculation  experiments  have  been  performed. 
There  can  be  no  question  of  the  importance  of  nodules 
to  the  plants,  as  the  difference  between  inoculated  and 
uninoculated  plants  is  often  markedly  apparent.  Any 
superiority  of  artificial  cultures  over  natural  inoculation 
has  thus,  far  not  been  realized.  Artificial  inoculation  for 
reasons  not  ascertained  is  less  certain  than  natural  soil 
inoculation.  Artificial  cultures  have  the  advantage  of 
cheapness  and  convenience,  but  thus  far  the  uncertainty 
attending  their  use  on  uninoculated  soil  has  more  than 
counterbalanced  these  advantages. 

From  theoretical  considerations,  there  is  abundant 
reason  to  believe  that. methods  will  yet  be  perfected  to 
secure  reliable  inoculation  by  artificial  cultures  of  espe- 
cially efficient  strains  of  the  nodule  bacteria. 

15.  Dependence  of  legumes  on  root  nodules.  —  Many 
legumes  will  grow  normally  in  a  fertile  soil  without  root 
nodules.  In  this  case,  however,  the  plant  is  less  rich  in 
nitrogen.  Thus,  Hopkins  analyzed  cowpeas  grown  at  the 
Illinois  Experiment  Station,  comparing  plants  with  and 
without  nodules.  The  former  were  three  times  as  large 
and  contained  3.9  per  cent  nitrogen  and  the  latter  but  2.2 
percent.  At  Amarillo,  Texas,  in  1908,  plots  of  cowpeas 
of  several  varieties  planted  in  fertile  virgin  soil  were 
entirely  devoid  of  nodules,  although  their  growth  was  ap- 
parently perfectly  normal. 

On  the  other  hand,  alfalfa  seems  to  be  dependent  under 
some  conditions  on  root  nodules  for  existence.  In  Mary- 


20  FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

land  and  Virginia,  numerous  experimental  fields  of  alfalfa 
planted  in  1907  failed  to  survive  where  inoculation  was 
not  secured.  This  was  the  case  even  in  well-fertilized  soils. 
The  plants  grew  to  a  height  of  about  four  inches  and  then 
gradually  turned  yellow  and  died.  Under  the  conditions 
of  these  experiments  alfalfa  seems  absolutely  dependent 
on  root  nodules  for  successful  growth.  In  contrast  to  this, 
alfalfa  is  said  to  have  succeeded  well  in  Kansas  from  its 
first  introduction  in  that  state,  but  no  observations  are 
recorded  in  regard  to  nodulation. 

According  to  Kirchner,  no  nodules  had  been  observed 
on  soybeans  grown  in  Europe  up  to  1895,  although  this 
plant  had  been  successfully  cultivated  since  1877. 


CHAPTER  II 
PRESERVATION  OF  FORAGE 

THE  principles  and  methods  of  preserving  forage  are 
quite  different  from  those  employed  with  other  crops. 
This  is  necessitated  largely  by  the  bulky  nature  of  forage, 
crops  and  the  comparatively  low  value  of  the  product. 
One  method  of  preservation  —  silage — is  perfected  to  a 
degree  which  makes  it  comparable  with  a  factory  process. 
The  making  of  hay,  however,  is  still  dependent  almost 
wholly  on  favorable  weather  conditions,  and  in  the  ab- 
sence of  this  condition  the  crop  is  often  lost  or  greatly 
damaged. 

16.  Preservation  of  forage  crops.  —  Herbage  may  be 
preserved  as  forage  in  one  of  three  ways,  hay,  brown 
hay  and  silage.  The  form  in  which  it  is  preserved  depends 
partly  on  the  particular  crop,  partly  on  climatic  conditions 
and  partly  on  the  special  purpose  for  which  it  is  required. 
Grasses  and  legumes  with  fine  stems  are  mostly  harvested 
as  hay.  Under  adverse  climatic  conditions,  however, 
such  crops  are  often  saved  as  brown  hay,  but  never  if 
bright  hay  can  be  cured.  Coarse  fodders,  like  corn  and 
sorghum,  are  more  and  more  being  preserved  as  silage,  as 
this  avoids  both  the  difficulties  of  curing  and  the  loss  from 
leaching  if  left  unprotected,  and  besides,  furnishes  a 
succulent  feed.  The  finer  grasses  and  legumes  may  also 
be  preserved  as  silage,  but  this  is  seldom  done,  except  when 
weather  conditions  prevent  drying,  and  a  silo  is  available. 

21 


22          FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

17.  Time  of  cutting.  —  There  are  five  different  criteria 
which  may  be  considered  in  determining  the  stage  at 
which  to  cut  a  crop  of  forage  :  — 

1.  When  the  plants  can  be  most  satisfactorily  cured 
either  as  hay  or  silage. 

2.  When  there  is  the  least  injury  to  the  succeeding 
cutting. 

3.  When  the  greatest  total  yield  can  be  obtained. 

4.  When  the  degree  of  digestibility  is  greatest,  especially 
of  the  proteids. 

5.  When  the  greatest  total  amount  of  digestible  nu- 
trients is  obtained. 

The  first  criterion  is  of  importance  only  in  regions  where 
the  climatic  conditions  can  be  predicted  with  some  cer- 
tainty. For  example,  in  most  of  the  Southern  States 
the  weather  In  fall  is  quite  likely  to  be  more  satisfactory 
for  curing  hay  than  is  midsummer.  On  this  account  the 
cutting  of  some  crops,  like  lespedeza  and  Bermuda  grass, 
is  commonly  postponed  till  then,  while  others,  as  cowpeas, 
are  planted  so  that  they  will  mature  at  this  time. 

The  second  consideration  has  some  bearing  on  crops 
that  yield  two  or  more  cuttings.  As  a  rule,  the  later  the 
first  cutting  is  made,  the  smaller  the  second  one  will  be. 

The  third  criterion  would  postpone  the  cutting  of  most 
grasses  until  the  seed  is  mature,  and  most  legumes  until 
the  leaves  begin  to  fall  off,  as  the  total  weight  increases 
until  maturity  except  as  there  is  loss  from  defoliation  or 
leaching.  At  this  stage,  however,  most  plants  become 
more  woody  and  less  palatable. 

The  fourth  criterion  is  unimportant  from  the  fact  that  in 
nearly  all  forage  crops  the  digestibility  is  greatest  when  the 
plants  are  young,  and  cutting  at  this  time  is  at  the  expense 
of  a  greatly  reduced  yield  and  greater  difficulty  in  curing. 


PRESERVATION   OF  FORAGE  23 

The  fifth  criterion  would  apparently,  from  a  theoretical 
consideration,  be  the  most  satisfactory  basis  to  use.  In 
grasses  the  percentage  of  digestibility  varies  but  slightly 
from  full  bloom  till  when  the  seeds  are  nearly  ripe,  but  in 
clovers  it  begins  to  fall  off  even  before  blooming.  From 
this,  it  would  appear  that  grasses  may  be  cut  at  any  time 
from  full  bloom  until  nearly  ripe,  excepting  where  the 
stems  become  decidedly  woody ;  while  perennial  legumes 
should  be  cut  not  later  than  full  bloom. 

18.  Haymaking  in  dry  weather.  —  Under  favorable 
climatic  conditions,  haymaking  is  a  simple  process.  The 
curing  will  then  often  take  place  in  the  windrows  into 
which  it  is  raked  when  well  wilted,  so  that  it  can  be 
stacked  or  housed  the  day  following  without  further 
handling,  though  it  is  usually  desirable  to  turn  the  wind- 
rows an  hour  or  more  before  loading.  This  method  is 
often  pursued  in  dry  climates.  The  only  objection  to  this 
system  is  that  more  bleaching  from  the  sun  takes  place 
than  if  the  hay  is  put  into  cocks  or  shocks  as  soon  as  dry 
enough.  With  such  rapid  curing,  however,  the  bleaching 
is  not  sufficient  to  justify  the  additional  labor  required 
in  cocking.  Some  loss,  however,  will  result,  especially 
in  legumes,  from  .the  leaves  becoming  too  dry  and  brittle 
so  that  they  break  off  in  subsequent  handling. 

Even  with  perfect  haying  weather,  the  best  hay  is 
secured  by  raking  into  windrows  as  soon  as  well  wilted, 
and  afterwards  piling  into  small  cocks  before  any  of  the 
leaves  become  brittle.  At  this  stage  the  leaves  are  drier 
than  the  stems,  but  in  the  cocks  this  is  partly  equalized 
by  the  leaves  absorbing  moisture  from  the  stems.  When 
thus  cured,  there  is  less  bleaching  from  the  sun,  or  sun 
and  dew  combined,  few  leaves  are  lost  by  becoming 
brittle  and  a  higher  degree  of  aroma  is  engendered.  By 


24  FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE' 

thoroughly  curing  in  the  cocks,  any  danger  of  subsequent 
heating  in  the  stack  or  mow  is  largely  removed.  Under 
the  best  conditions  hay  may  be  stacked  or  housed  the  same 
day  that  it  is  cut,  but  this  is  seldom  done  until  the  second 
or  third  day. 

19.  Curing  of  hay.  —  In  curing  hay  under  ideal  con- 
ditions,  three   different   processes   take   place ;    namely, 
(1)  a  reduction  in  water  content  from  about  70  per  cent 
(60  per  cent  to  85  per  cent)  in  the  green  plant  to  about 
15  per  cent  (7  per  cent  to  25  per  cent)  when  dried  ;   (2)  en- 
zymatic changes  in  the  composition  of  the  hay,  usually 
with  the  development  of  a  characteristic  aroma ;  (3)  bleach- 
ing, due  to  destruction  of  the  chlorophyll  by  the  sunlight 
which  is  increased  by  the  action  of  the  dew. 

The  conditions  sought  in  prime  hay  are  bright  color,  that 
is,  as  green  as  possible ;  good  aroma ;  retention  of  leaves 
(in  legumes) ;  and  freedom  from  "  dust  "  or  mold  spores. 

20.  Haymaking  under  humid  conditions.  —  While  hay- 
making in  favorable  weather  is  simple,  it  becomes  greatly 
complicated  by  cloudiness,  rain  and  heavy  dews.     Rain 
is  injurious  both  because  it  delays  drying  and  because  it 
leaches  out  soluble  nutrients.     If  long  continued,  espe- 
cially in  warm  weather,  it  induces  the  growth  of  various 
molds  and  other  fungi,  and  the  hay  becomes  "  dusty. " 

Two  processes  to  facilitate  curing  of  hay  under  un- 
certain conditions  are  commonly  employed.  The  first 
of  these  is  designed  to  hasten  drying  by  turning  the  grass 
over  as  soon  as  the  top  is  dried,  using  pitchforks  if  done 
by  hand,  or  a  tedder  if  by  horse  power.  Where  the  crop 
is  very  heavy,  this  is  done  while  the  hay  is  in  the  swath, 
but  usually  it  is  first  raked  into  windrows.  The  second 
process  is  to  pile  into  cocks  after  partially  curing  in  wind- 
rows. The  object  here  is  mainly  to  reduce  the  surface 


PRESERVATION   OF  FORAGE  25 

exposed  to  moisture  that  may  fall  on  the  half-cured  hay 
either  as  dew  or  rain.  Where  the  drying  is  long  pro- 
tracted, much  additional  labor  is  entailed  by  spreading 
the  cocks  each  favorable  morning  and  recocking  in  the 
evening  until  cured. 

While  the  difficulty  of  thus  curing  grass  hay  is  great, 
it  is  far  less  than  in  the  case  of  legumes.  Grasses  have 
slender,  usually  hollow  stems,  and  persistent  leaves,  while 
most  legumes  have  solid  stalks  that  are  relatively  thicker, 
and  consequently  dry  much  more  slowly.  Furthermore, 
the  leaflets  of  legumes  dry  first  and  fall  off  easily  when 
the  hay  is  half  cured,  so  that  if  much  handled  a  large 
portion  of  the  leaves  may  be  lost.  In  addition,  legume 
hays  do  not  shed  rain  water  as  well  as  do  grass  hays,  the 
latter  indeed  often  being  put  on  the  top  of  shocks  of  legume 
hay  to  shed  moisture. 

Cut  hay  should  never  be  handled  while  wet.  If  the 
surface  hay  was  best  cured  before  the  rain,  as  would  be 
the  case  in  the  swath,  it  is  in  the  most  favorable  position 
to  dry  promptly.  If  in  the  windrow,  the  stirring  of  the 
hay  while  the  surface  is  wet  brings  this  moisture  in  con- 
tact with  the  drier  hay  beneath,  by  which  it  is  readily 
absorbed. 

Unfavorable  weather  greatly  increases  the  cost  of  hay- 
making, both  in  requiring  more  labor  and  in  causing 
greater  loss  of  leaves  from  the  more  frequent  handling 
necessitated. 

Continuous  rains  do  but  little  more  damage  to  freshly 
cut  hay  plants  than  to  the  uncut  plants,  at  least  during 
the  first  three  or  four  days  after  cutting.  Cured  or 
partially  cured  hay,  however,  loses  by  leaching.  Headden, 
at  the  Colorado  Experiment  Station,  compared  alfalfa 
hay  exposed  to  warm  humid  weather  for  fifteen  days, 


26  FOE  AGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

during  which  time  1.76  inches  of  rain  fell  in  three  showers, 
with  a  sample  cut  at  the  same  time  and  immediately 
dried  in  an  oven.  The  former  contained  but  11.01  per 
cent  of  protein  against  18.71  per  cent  for  the  latter. 

Corn  stover  exposed  two  months  to  weather  at  the  Wis- 
consin Experiment  Station  lost  from  12.76  per  cent  to 
22.83  per  cent  of  the  total  dry  matter  and  59.6  per  cent 
to  71.55  per  cent  of  the  total  protein.  At  the  Colorado 
Experiment  Station,  corn  stover  spread  on  the  ground 
in  small  shocks  and  in  large  shocks  lost,  respectively, 
55,  43  and  31  per  cent  of  the  dry  matter.  In  these  cases, 
however,  the  loss  is  partly  due  to  fermentation  and  to 
molds. 

Westgate  sprinkled  perfectly  cured  crimson  clover  hay 
with  water  to  imitate  rain  for  one  hour  each  on  three 
successive  days.  On  analysis  it  was  found  in  com- 
parison with  a  sample  unsprinkled  to  have  lost  about 
three-fourths  of  its  sugar,  one-ninth  of  its  protein  and 
three-fourths  of  its  ash  constituents. 

Kellner  in  Germany  analyzed  two  lots  of  alfalfa  hay, 
one  very  carefully  dried,  the  other  exposed  during  drying 
to  one  heavy  thunder  storm  and  one  light  shower.  The 
latter  was  poorer  than  the  former  in  protein  2.1  per  cent  ; 
in  fiber,  2.2  per  cent ;  in  carbohydrate,  .4  per  cent  and  in 
fat,  .5  per  cent. 

21.  Special  devices  to  facilitate  hay  curing.  —  Where 
weather  injury  is  frequently  experienced  in  curing  hay, 
certain  devices  are  often  used  that  are  helpful. 

Most  common  perhaps  is  the  perch,  which  in  its  simplest 
form  is  a  stake  about  six  feet  long  with  cross  arms  two 
to  three  feet  long.  This  is  driven  into  the  ground  and 
the  green  or  half-dried  plants  are  hung  upon  it  so  as  to 
make  a  tall,  slender  cock.  Perches  are  much  used  in 


PRESERVATION  OF  FORAGE  27 

curing  peanut  vines  and  are  also  very  useful  for  cowpeas 
and  similar  viny  plants. 

A  less  simple,  but  more  effective  device  is  the  pyramid, 
which  permits  of  making  larger  cocks  with  an  open  air 
space  in  the  interior.  Numerous  forms  of  pyramids  have 
been  devised,  even  metal  ones  being  used  in  Europe. 
They  consist  essentially  of  three  or  four  legs  jointed  at 
the  top  and  sometimes  sharpened  below  so  that  they  can 
be  pushed  firmly  into  the  ground.  Cross  pieces  joining 
the  legs  are  also  useful.  The  legs  are  commonly  6  to  8 
feet  long.  A  form  devised  at  the  Tennessee  Experiment 
Station  is  so  joined  at  the  top  that  the  three  legs  come 
together  when  the  pyramid  is  not  in  use. 

Still  more  elaborate  frames  are  sometimes  used  for 
cowpeas,  combining  the  characteristics  of  a  pyramid  and 
of  a  permanent  stack.  It  is  a  common  practice  in  stack- 
ing cowpea  hay  not  completely  cured  to  make  alternate 
layers  of  hay  and  of  wooden  rails.  The  rails  prevent  the 
hay  from  matting  and  facilitate  curing  by  permitting  the 
circulation  of  the  air.  Such  a  stack  is  greatly  improved 
by  supporting  the  rails  at  each  end,  so  that  the  air  may 
more  easily  circulate  between  the  layers  of  hay. 

Hay  caps  are  also  very  desirable  to  protect  cocks  from 
rain.  The  form  most  commonly  used  consists  of  a  piece 
of  canvas  about  one  yard  square  with  a  weight  at  each 
corner.  By  the  use  of  a  hay  cap  the  hay  cock  is  protected 
from  the  rain  that  falls  directly  upon  it. 

If  hay  be  stacked  on  low,  wet  ground,  the  bottom  por- 
tion becomes  ruined  by  the  absorption  of  moisture.  This 
may  be  prevented  by  building  the  stack  on  a  raised  stage. 
Where  hay  is  annually  cut  on  wet  meadows  which  become 
overflowed,  permanent  hay  stages  built  on  a  level  above 
high  water  mark  are  often  employed. 


28  FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

In  Europe,  another  method  of  curing  hay  which  involves 
much  hand  labor  is  employed.  This  consists  in  tying 
the  grass  in  sheaves  after  it  has  wilted  one  or  two  days. 
The  sheaves  are  bound  near  the  top  so  that  when  the 
cut  ends  are  spread,  they  will  stand  alone.  As  these  are 
often  blown  down  by  the  wind,  it  involves  an  excessive 
amount  of  labor.  Sometimes  a  number  of  sheaves  are 
tied  together  so  as  to  form  a  hollow  cone,  or  many  may 
thus  be  placed  to  form  a  rectangle  with  sloping  sides  and 
open  ends.  Such  structures  do  not  blow  down  so  readily, 
but  require  much  labor  to  set  up.  The  sheaves  are  dried 
out  principally  by  the  circulation  of  the  air. 

In  semi-arid  regions  immature  wheat,  barley  and  other 
cereals  are  sometimes  cut  with  a  binder,  and  the  bound 
sheaves  cure  readily  without  further  handling. 

22.  Completion  of  curing.  —  The  stage  at  which  curing 
is  complete  enough  to  make  it  safe  to  stack  or  house  the 
hay  is  not  easily  determined.  Where  damage  from 
weather  is  feared,  it  is  important  to  get  the  crop  in  as  soon 
as  possible,  especially  in  the  case  of  legumes.  A  common 
rule  is  to  consider  legumes  safe  to  put  in  large  cocks  or 
stacks  when  moisture  can  no  longer  be  made  to  exude 
from  the  stems  by  twisting  them  tightly.  When  hay  is 
stacked  before  thoroughly  dry,  it  undergoes  a  process  of 
heating  or  sweating.  Legumes  heat  much  more  than 
grasses.  Even  when  put  in  the  mow  at  the  stage  indicated, 
alfalfa  and  crimson  clover  may  become  about  as  hot  as 
the  hand  can  bear. 

It  is  a  common  practice  to  sprinkle  salt  or  lime  over 
each  layer  of  hay  which  is  thought  to  be  insufficiently 
cured.  To  what  extent  this  may  modify  sweating  and 
subsequent  moldiness  is  not  well  ascertained. 

Hay  is  safe  to  place  in  the  barn  when  the  moisture 


PRESERVATION   OF  FORAGE  29 

content  is  reduced  to  20  per  cent.  It  is  rarely  practicable, 
however,  to  make  moisture  determinations.  Among 
empirical  rules  used  to  determine  when  curing  is  so  far 
completed  to  make  housing  safe  are  (1)  when  the  hay 
breaks  if  a  wisp  is  tightly  twisted  in  the  hand ;  (2)  when 
it  is  dry  enough  to  rattle  if  gently  shaken ;  and  (3)  when 
it  no  longer  feels  cool  if  pressed  to  the  cheek. 

23.  Shrinkage  of  stored  hay.  —  Hay  when  stored  con- 
tains a  varying  amount  of  water,  depending  on  the  thor- 
oughness of  the  curing.  Even  in  very  dry  climates  it  is 
seldom  less  than  10  per  cent  and  in  moist  climates  or  under 
unfavorable  conditions  is  commonly  as  high  as  25  per 
cent.  In  the  West  hay  is  often  stacked  when  the  moisture 
content  exceeds  25  per  cent,  and  instances  are  reported 
where  it  contained  as  high  as  38  per  cent  and  yet  kept  well. 
The  average  moisture  content  of  cured  hay  ranges  from 
15  to  20  per  cent. 

Shrinkage  is  mainly  due  to  loss  of  water ;  in  rare  cases 
where  the  hay  is  put  in  the  mow  when  very  dry,  there  may 
be  gain  in  water  content.  Shrinkage  due  to  loss  of  moisture 
varies  according  to  the  water  content  when  stored  and  the 
humidity  of  the  air. 

Besides  the  shrinkage  due  to  evaporation  of  moisture, 
there  is  a  varying  amount  of  loss  due  to  oxidation.  Even 
in  well  cured  hay  the  enzymatic  changes  which  go  on  cause 
a  small  loss  by  oxidation.  In  poorly  cured  hay  the  loss 
may  be  much  greater,  not  only  from  the  high  degree  of 
heat  engendered  by  the  preliminary  fermentation,  but 
also  by  the  growth  of  destructive  molds  and  other 
organisms. 

The  actual  shrinkage  which  takes  place  in  stored  or 
stacked  hay  has  been  determined  at  several  experiment 
stations. 


30 


FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 


At  the  Rhode  Island  Experiment  Station,  hay  removed 
from  the  barn  in  February,  1902,  contained  12.21  per 
cent  of  moisture.  The  shrinkage  of  hay  from  three  plots 
differently  fertilized  was  determined  as  follows  on  this 
basis  of  water  content:  — 


PLOT  17 

WITHOUT 

NITROGEN 

PLOT  19 
NITRATE 
OF  SODA, 

138   LB. 

PLOT  21 

NITRATE 
OF  SODA, 

414   LB. 

Percentage 

loss 

during  barn 

curing  in 

1901 

'.     .     .     • 

14.9 

15.7 

19.6 

Percentage 

loss 

during  barn 

curing  in 

1902 

•     •     •     * 

13.3 

15.8 

16.0 

From  these  results  it  would  appear  that  hay  from  land 
fertilized  with  nitrogen  shrinks  more  than  that  from 
unfertilized. 

The  Maine  Experiment  Station  reports  that  two  lots  of 
timothy  cut  respectively  July  9  and  July  24  and  put  in 
a  barn  when  dry,  showed  a  shrinkage  on  November  24 
of  12.2  per  cent  for  the  early  and  13.3  per  cent  for  the 
later  cutting.  In  another  test  the  loss  in  storing  field- 
cured  hay  for  10  months  was  16.6  per  cent  in  early-cut 
hay  and  18.1  per  cent  in  late-cut  hay. 

The  Pennsylvania  Experiment  Station  reports  that 
timothy  hay  cut  in  bloom  showed  an  average  shrinkage 
in  weight  in  the  barn  after  5  or  6  months  of  25.7  per  cent, 
while  hay  cut  two  .weeks  later  shrunk  in  weight  on  the 
average  18.8  per  cent.  Three  mowings  of  red  clover  cut 
respectively  when  in  bloom,  "  some  heads  dead/'  and 
"  heads  all  dead/'  showed  a  shrinkage  after  several  months' 
storage  in  the  barn  of  42.4  per  cent,  44.2  per  cent  and 
25.7  per  cent  in  the  order  named. 


PRESERVATION  OF  FORAGE 


31 


The  Michigan  Experiment  Station  reports  that  timothy 
hay  stored  in  a  barn  lost  in  one  case  7  per  cent  in  6  months ; 
in  three  other  cases  the  losses  were  respectively  13.8, 
15.0  and  21.7  per  cent.  Red  clover  hay  lost  9  per  cent 
by  November  in  one  case  and  3.6  per  cent  in  another; 
the  loss  from  July  to  February  was  11.2  per  cent. 

At  the  Utah  Experiment  Station  one  ton  of  timothy 
placed  in  the  center  of  a  mow  July  15  contained  1790.8 
pounds  dry  matter,  the  moisture  content  being  10.46 
per  cent.  The  following  May  it  contained  1557.4  pounds 
of  dry  matter  and  14.61  per  cent  moisture.  The  loss  in 
dry  matter  was  14.9  per  cent. 

Twenty-nine  pounds  of  timothy  hay  suspended  in  a 
gunny  bag  for  the  same  length  of  time  increased  in  mois- 
ture content  from  12.3  to  14.52  per  cent.  There  was  no  loss 
in  dry  matter. 

At  the  Kansas  Experiment  Station  moisture  determina- 
tions were  made  for  several  kinds  of  hay  when  stored  in 
summer  and  again  December  15.  The  results  indicate 
that  when  curing  is  complete  the  moisture  content  of  all 
hays  is  much  the  same  under  the  same  conditions :  — 

MOISTURE  CONTENT  OF  HAYS  AT  KANSAS  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


KIND  OP  HAY 

PER  CENT 
MOISTURE 

WHEN 
STORED  IN 

SUMMER 

PER  CENT 
MOISTURE 
DECEMBER 
15 

PER  CENT 
Loss  OR  GAIN 
IN  WEIGHT 

Orchard-grass,  blue-grass  and 
clover       .     .      .     .   -  .     .     % 

1565 

10  54 

5  71  loss 

Blue-grass   .     .     ....     . 

1959 

1060 

10  05  loss 

Orchard-grass  and  clover   .     . 
Clover     "  i 

19.75 

908 

11.80 
11  87 

9.01  loss 
3  17  gain 

Prairie  hay  . 

14  00 

10  61 

3  39  loss 

Millet      .... 

21  86 

889 

14  25  loss 

32 


FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 


24.  Loss  of  hay  or  fodder  in  the  field.  —  Hay  in  stacks 
or  fodder  in  shocks  loses  much  more  substance  than  when 
stored  in  barns.  This  is  especially  true  in  humid  regions. 
The  additional  loss  is  largely  due  to  leaching  by  rains, 
but  the  bleaching  effect  of  sunlight  and  the  larger  loss 
by  molds  and  other  fungi  is  also  important. 

Short  at  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  compared 
the  loss  in  corn  fodder  both  when  stored  and  when  ex- 
posed to  the  weather.  His  results  are  shown  in  the  fol- 
lowing table :  - 


FRESH 

WEATH- 
ERED 

Loss 

Loss 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

per  cent 

Sample  I 

Weight 

27.00 

11.25 

18.75 

Dry  matter 

7.84 

6.84 

1.00 

12.76 

Protein 

.663 

.22 

.343 

59.56 

Date       .     . 

Sept.  21 

Nov.  14 

Sample  II 

Weight 

28.50 

10.25 

18.25 



Dry  matter 

8.45 

6.52 

1.93 

22.83 

Protein 

.485 

.138 

.347 

71.55 

Date       .     . 

Sept.  21 

Nov.  14 

25.  Relation  of  green  weight  to  dry  weight.  —  There  is 
no  fixed  ratio  between  the  green  weight  and  the  dry 
weight  of  any  plant.  This  varies,  obviously,  with  the 
water  content  of  the  plant,  which  is  never  constant.  It 
also  varies  with  the  conditions  under  which  the  plant  was 
grown,  a  rapid  succulent  growth  making  a  relatively 
smaller  amount  of  dry  matter  than  a  slow  retarded  growth. 

For  these  reasons,  as  well  as  the  variable  amount  of 
moisture  in  hay,  there  is  a  wide  variation  in  the  ratio 
of  green  weight  and  hay  weight,  not  only  for  different  hay 
plants  but  even  in  different  cuttings  from  the  same  ploto 


PRESERVATION  OF  FORAGE  33 

The  actual  water  content  of  a  plant  is  easily  determined 
by  laboratory  methods,  care  being  taken  to  weigh  the 
green  plant  under  conditions  that  do  not  permit  of  loss 
by  evaporation  before  weighing.  The  hay  yield  can  be 
approximated  from  the  water-free  weight  by  arbitrarily 
adding  20  per  cent.  Such  estimates  are  more  nearly 
accurate  than  those  obtained  in  the  field  by  obtaining 
first  the  green  weight  and  later  the  hay  weight,  as  the 
moisture  content  of  both  vary  greatly  under  field  condi- 
tions. The  discrepancies  that  thus  occur  in  field  weights, 
green  and  dry,  are  sometimes  very  large. 

The  relation  between  dry  weights  and  green  weights  of 
29  varieties  of  red  clover  grown  at  the  Ontario  Agri- 
cultural College,  show  an  average  ratio  of  1 : 6.  The  widest 
ratio  of  any  variety  is  1 :  8.1  and  the  narrowest,  1 :  4.8. 

Jordan  at  the  Maine  Experiment  Station  found  that 
timothy  cut  when  the  heads  were  beginning  to  appear 
lost,  on  an  average,  75  per  cent  of  water  in  curing  into  hay ; 
when  beginning  to  bloom,  the  loss  was  66  per  cent ;  when 
past  bloom,  57  per  cent. 

At  the  same  station  the  green  and  air-dried  yield  of 
29  strains  of  clover  in  duplicate  plots  was  weighed.  The 
shrinkage  in  drying  ranged  from  68  per  cent  in  one  plot 
of  Bohemian  red  clover  to  82  per  cent  in  a  strain  from 
Denmark.  The  average  shrinkage  was  73  to  75  per  cent. 
Very  leafy  plants  shrink  more  than  those  less  leafy. 

The  following  relations  appear  between  green  weight 
and  dry  weight,  in  pounds  per  acre,  of  various  crops 
grown  at  the  Pennsylvania  Experiment  Station.  As 
will  be  noticed,  the  water  contents  of  the  crops  re- 
ported upon  differ  greatly.  The  low  water  content  of 
spring  vetch  in  contrast  with  that  of  sand  vetch  is  es- 
pecially surprising :  — 


34 


FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 


GREEN 

DRY 

RATIO 

Canada  peas    
Spring  vetch 

20,142 

8832 

3,937 
5  934 

1:5 
I;  1.5 

Sand  vetch.       

6  756 

2492 

1-24 

Red  clover 

17  760 

4  808 

1-37 

20250 

4  133 

1-49 

Alsike  clover    . 

15960 

3  956 

1:5 

Crimson  clover          .... 

12492 

3402 

1-37 

Timothy      

7,920 

3,344 

1  :2.4 

26.  Loss  of  substance  from  growing  plants.  —  Studies 
of  the  chemistry  of  plants  at  different  stages  have  in  many 
cases  shown  that  the  total  amount  of  such  substances  as 
nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  potash  and  soda  was  smaller 
at  maturity  than  some  time  previously.  The  same  fact 
has  also  been  shown  in  field  investigations  where  the  total 
weight  of  hay  produced  per  unit  of  area  was  less  at  ma- 
turity than  at  an  earlier  stage. 

Three  general  explanations  of  the  phenomenon  have 
been  advanced,  namely  :  — 

1.  The  backward  flow  of  the  salts  of  the  plant  through 
the  stem  and  roots  into  the  soil. 

2.  The  mechanical  loss  of  material  from  the  leaves  by 
decay,  drying,  etc. 

3.  The  leaching  effects  of  rain  and  dew. 

The  subject  has  recently  been  studied  by  LeClerc 
and  Brezeale.  From  their  investigations  it  is  demon- 
strated that  all  growing  plants  exude  salts  upon  the  sur- 
face of  the  leaves  which  are  washed  off  by  rains.  No 
evidence  was  found  that  salts  migrate  downward,  as  the 
lower  part  of  the  stem  is  always  poorer  in  phosphorus, 
potash  and  nitrogen  than  the  upper  part  and  leaves. 
Wheat  plants  were  grown  in  the  greenhouse  and  watered 


PRESERVATION   OF  FORAGE 


35 


only  at  the  roots  so  as  not  to  wet  the  foliage.  Some  of 
these  plants  blighted  so  that  the  whole  plant  slowly  died, 
or  else  the  tips  of  the  leaves  were  killed.  Analyses  of 
the  dead  leaf  tips  showed  that  they  were  always  poorer 
in  nitrogen  and  potash  than  the  living  basal  portions. 
Other  analyses  of  these  dying  plants  showed  that  the  lower 
nodes  of  the  stem,  whether  dead  or  alive,  were  always  poorer 
in  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid  and  potash  than  the  upper  ones, 
which  would  not  be  the  case  if  the  movement  were  down- 
ward. From  these  observations,  the  conclusion  is  drawn 
that  on  ripening  the  salts  held  in  the  sap  of  the  plants  have 
a  tendency  to  migrate  from  the  dying  to  the  living  tissue ; 
and  that  the  migration  is  upward  and  not  downward. 

In  another  series  of  experiments,  a  whole  barley  plant 
at  the  heading  stage  was  soaked  in  a  dish  of  distilled  water 
for  several  minutes  and  lost  1.6  per  cent  of  its  nitrogen 
content,  36  per  cent  of  its  phosphoric  acid  and  65  per 
cent  of  its  potash.  A  pot  of  rice  plants  before  the  heads 
were  mature  was  tilted  over  a  dish  and  the  tops  sprayed 
with  about  2^  quarts  of  water,  imitating  somewhat  the 
action  of  rain.  Analyses  made  both  of  the  ash  of  the  plant 
and  of  the  teachings  showed  that  the  artificial  rain  had 
removed  salts  from  the  plant. 

Wheat  plants  in  bloom  and  fully  ripe  were  washed  in 
distilled  water  five  to  ten  minutes,  and  both  the  plants 
and  the  water  analyzed.  The  percentage  losses  of  mineral 
substances  were  as  follows: — 


NITRO- 
GEN 

PHOS- 
PHORIC 
ACID 

POTASH 

SODA 

LIME 

MAG- 
NESIA 

CHLORIN 

In  bloom 

1.4 

0 

4.4 

12.7 

0 

10.3 

7.6 

Fully  ripe 

7.0 

33.0 

54.0 

41.0 

34.0 

46.0 

60.0 

36  FORAGE  PLANTS  ANJ)   THEIR   CULTURE 

Similar  losses  were  also  found  when  wheat  plants 
grown  in  the  greenhouse  to  ripeness  were  exposed  to 
four  rainfalls  in  such  a  way  that  the  rain  after  falling  on 
the  plant  was  caught  in  a  tray.  Oat  plants  were  also 
subjected  to  a  test  of  this  sort  with  comparable  results. 

From  these  experiments  the  conclusion  is  drawn  that 
plants  exude  salts  upon  their  surfaces  and  the  rain  then 
washes  these  salts  back  to  the  soil. 

27.  Hay  stacks.  —  In  the  absence  of  barn  room,  hay 
is  frequently  stacked  in  the  field,  especially  in  dry  regions. 
The  shape  of  stacks  varies  greatly.     If  circular  at  base, 
they  may  be  conical  or  thimble-shaped  in  form,  not  in- 
frequently being  built  so  that  they  are  largest  above  the 
middle,  as  this  will  shed  water  from  the  base.     In  the 
west,  they  are  most  commonly  rectangular  in  outline, 
higher  than  broad,  and  with  the  top  ridge-like  or  less 
commonly  rounded. 

Well-built  stacks  are  compact  and  the  hay  so  laid  that 
it  sheds  water  both  on  the  top  and  sides.  This  is  difficult 
to  accomplish  with  legume  hays,  so  that  stacks  of  these 
are  frequently  covered  with  grass  hay  or  straw. 

To  build  a  good  stack  requires  both  knowledge  and 
experience. 

28.  Spontaneous    combustion.  —  Under    certain     con- 
ditions hay,  especially  of  legumes,  if  put  in  a  mow  or  stack 
while  still  moist,  engenders  great  heat,  and  in  some  cases 
destructive  fires  have  resulted.     Several  instances  have 
been  recorded  where  the  center  of  a  mow  or  stack  has 
been  found  entirely  charred  when  opened.    Apparently  the 
only  reason  that  prevented  ignition  was  the  absence  of  air. 
There  have,  however,  been  a  number  of  well-authenticated 
cases  where  barns  have  been  burned  by  spontaneous  com- 
bustion from  alfalfa  and  from  crimson  clover  hay. 


PRESERVATION  OF  FORAGE  37 

Conditions  which  cause  spontaneous  combustion  are 
not  sufficiently  well  known  to  warrant  any  definite  state- 
ment as  to  just  when  hay  is  sufficiently  cured  to  be  safe. 
There  is  apparently  always  risk  unless  the  hay  is  thor- 
oughly cured. 

The  problem  has  been  specifically  studied  by  Hoffmann, 
in  Germany,  who  experimented  especially  with  red  clover 
hay.  He  finds  that  the  heat  is  generated  through  a 
process  of  fermentation,  probably  enzymatic,  in  which 
oxygen  is  taken  from  the  air  and  the  organic  matter  is 
transformed  into  carbon  dioxide  and  water.  From  this 
additional  moisture  a  secondary  fermentation  due  to 
bacteria  takes  place.  If  the  hay  has  external  moisture 
when  first  stored,  the  fermentation  is  more  rapid.  The 
preliminary  fermentation  causes  a  temperature  of  56°  C. 
This  temperature  causes  a  second  and  more  violent  oxi- 
dation to  take  place  and  the  temperature  rises  to  about 
90°  C.  In  further  fermentation  processes  the  heat  slowly 
rises  to  as  high  as  130°  C.,  at  which  temperatures  the  hay 
is  charred.  From  theoretical  consideration  Hoffmann 
figures  that  the  temperature  may  rise  to  190°  C.  In  the 
presence  of  oxygen  ignition  will  take  place  at  150°  C.  or 
higher.  If,  however,  oxygen  be  excluded,  ignition  will  not 
occur,  but  the  hay  will  be  converted  into  a  mass  of  charcoal. 

29.  Statistics  of  hay  yields.  —  Yields  of  forage  crops 
per  acre  are  much  less  accurately  known  than  those  of 
grain  crops.  Reliable  data  of  hay  yields  are  available 
mainly  in  connection  with  definite  experiments.  Esti- 
mates of  farmers  upon  which  statistical  and  census 
data  are  based  are  probably  too  large.  It  is  a  difficult 
matter  to  estimate  closely  a  yield  of  hay,  and  there  is 
little  chance  to  become  proficient,  as  hay  yields  are  so 
seldom  weighed.  On  the  other  hand,  the  farmer  sells  his 


38          FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

wheat,  barley,  or  other  small  grain  crop,  and  puts  his  corn 
into  bins  or  cribs,  so  that  he  has  every  year  an  approxi- 
mately accurate  measure  to  compare  with  his  estimates. 

Another  factor  that  leads  to  exaggeration  is  the  large 
unit  of  measurement  employed ;  namely,  the  ton  of  2000 
pounds.  The  smallest  fraction  ever  used  in  estimates 
is  ^  of  a  ton. 

The  farmers'  actual  estimates  are  commonly  based 
on  the  wagon  load,  usually  considered  as  being  one  ton, 
but  it  is  probable  that  the  average  wagon  load  is  nearer 
three-fourths  of  a  ton. 

Only  where  hay  is  baled  can  the  yield  figures  be  con- 
sidered reliable.  Even  in  this  case  some  allowance  for 
moisture  needs  to  be  made.  Well-cured  timothy  hay  con- 
tains about  14  per  cent  of  moisture,  but  as  baled  in  the 
field,  the  water  content  is  usually  higher. 

Experiment  station  yields  are  usually  higher  than  those 
obtained  by  farmers,  as  experimental  plots  are  as  a  rule 
small,  and  secure  better  treatment  than  farmers'  fields. 

30.  Brown  hay.  —  When  climatic  conditions  interfere 
with  the  curing  of  bright  hay,  the  crop  may  be  preserved 
as  brown  hay.  In  this  process  the  hay  is  cured  largely 
by  the  aid  of  the  heat  engendered  in  fermentation.  After 
cutting,  the  grass  is  made  into  cocks,  trampling  each  layer 
to  make  it  as  dense  as  practicable.  In  these  cocks,  the 
heat  engendered  by  fermentation  may  reach  the  boiling 
point  of  water.  The  second  or  third  day  after  cocking, 
the  piles  are  opened  so  as  to  permit  the  escape  of  the  vapor, 
after  which  the  product  may  be  safely  housed. 

A  more  common  process  is  to  dry  the  hay  as  much  as 
possible  in  the  air  and  then  pile  into  compact  stacks,  where 
it  is  permitted  to  remain  until  fed .  The  final  product  varies 
in  color  from  dark  brown  to  nearly  black. 


PRESERVATION   OF  FORAGE  39 

31.  Silage.  —  Silage  is  made  by  the  natural  fermen- 
tation of  green  fodder  in  receptacles  from  which  the 
access  of  air  is  excluded.  In  some  form  this  process  has 
been  employed  over  a  century.  Originally  pits  in  the 
earth  either  lined  or  unlined  were  used,  and  such  are 
still  employed,  but  in  recent  times  specially  constructed 
buildings  called  silos  have  become  common.  These  may 
be  built  of  wood,  brick,  tile,  concrete,  or  steel.  Most 
commonly  they  are  cylindrical  in  form,  and  much  taller 
than  broad.  (Silage  is  sometimes  called  ensilage ;  but  this 
word  is  properly  a  verb  meaning  to  place  material  in  the 
silo,  or  to  make  silage,  as  to  ensilage  corn.  The  verb  is 
sometimes  shortened,  in  the  vernacular,  to  ensile.) 

The  proper  fermentation  requires  only  the  exclusion  of 
air,  but  practically  this  is  best  secured  by  close  packing. 
Usually  this  is  promoted  by  cutting  the  fodder  fine  and 
often  by  trampling  and  the  use  of  weights.  The  cut 
fodder  also  has  the  advantage  of  being  more  easily  re- 
moved from  the  silo  when  used.  The  volume  decreases  as 
fermentation  proceeds,  so  provision  must  be  made  for  even 
settling. 

The  fermentation  results  in  the  formation  of  various 
acids  and  the  loss  of  some  substance  as  gas.  While  fer- 
menting, a  considerable  degree  of  heat  is  engendered. 
The  fermentation  is  complete  in  from  two  to  eight  weeks, 
but  corn  silage  is  as  a  rule  ready  for  use  in  four  weeks. 
In  contact  with  air  silage  decays,  due  to  the  attacks  of 
fungi  and  aerobic  bacteria. 

To  provide  the  necessary  conditions  silos  are  con- 
structed with  air-tight  walls  smooth  on  the  inside,  and 
the  fodder  is  cut  small  so  as  to  pack  closely  and  settle 
evenly.  In  filling  a  silo,  the  top  should  not  be  left  ex- 
posed more  than  a  day  or  two,  as  decay  then  ensues. 


40  FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

When  filled,  the  top  should  be  covered  to  exclude  air. 
This  was  formerly  done  with  a  foot  or  so  of  earth,  the 
weight  of  which  assisted  the  settling.  Usually,  however, 
the  top  portion  is  allowed  to  decay,  and  it  thus  makes 
a  nearly  air-tight  layer,  but  sometimes  a  layer  of  straw, 
chaff  or  green  grass  is  used  to  exclude  the  air  so  as  to 
preserve  all  the  silage. 

This  name  "  summer  silage  "  has  been  given  to  silage 
prepared  in  late  spring  or  early  summer  to  feed  after  the 
corn  silage  of  the  previous  season  is  exhausted.  Among 
crops  that  have  been  thus  used  are  rye,  wheat,  oats  and 
red  clover.  The  principal  precaution  to  be  taken  is  to 
have  the  silo  small  enough  so  that  at  least  4  inches  is 
removed  a  day,  as  during  hot  weather  silage  spoils  more 
quickly.  It  is  claimed  that  the  use  of  summer  silage  is 
far  more  economical  than  soiling  and  just  as  satisfactory, 
but  few  data  have  as  yet  been  published. 

In  using  silage,  the  material  is  generally  removed  from 
the  top.  About  2  inches  per  day  should  be  removed, 
as  otherwise  considerable  loss  occurs  from  mold. 

Silage  is  sometimes  made  simply  by  piling  the  green 
plants  in  large  compact  stacks.  This  method  has  been 
used  with  sorghum  and  is  sometimes  employed  by  can- 
neries to  preserve  green  pea  vines  from  which  the  peas 
have  been  separated.  Such  silage  stacks  are  not  economi- 
cal unless  they  are  very  large,  as  there  is  always  consider- 
able loss  on  the  surface. 

32.  The  nature  of  silage  fermentation.  —  The  investi- 
gations at  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  by  Babcock, 
Russell  and  King  lead  -to  the  conclusion  that  the  fermenta- 
tion of  silage  under  proper  conditions  is  not  due  to  bacteria 
or  other  organisms,  as  has  generally  been  held.  Among 
the  facts  that  are  significant  are  the  following :  — 


PRESERVATION  OF  FORAGE  41 

1.  Silage  may  reach  its  maximum  temperature  within 
twenty-four  hours,   a  period  much  briefer  than  occurs 
with  bacterial  fermentation. 

2.  When  silage  is  fully  cured,  the  further  evolution  of 
gas  is  small  and  mainly  stationary.      If  now  the  silage 
be  exposed  to  air,  a  new  fermentation  by  bacteria  and 
molds  will   ensue  and   cause  a  rise   in   temperature  far 
above  the  previous  anaerobic  fermentation. 

3.  Freshly  cut  corn  in  air-tight  receptacles  treated  with 
chloroform,  ether  or  benzol  to  suppress  bacteria,  never- 
theless ferments  into  silage,  though  with  lower  acid  content. 

4.  Freshly  cut  corn  in  air-tight  receptacles  filled  with 
an  inert  gas  like  hydrogen  or  nitrogen,   ferments  into 
silage  more  slowly  and  the  final  product  is  more  acid. 

5.  Corn  killed  by  frost  will  not  produce  silage,  but 
untreated,  decays  into  an  ill-smelling  mass,  due  to  bacteria. 
Treated  with  ether  to  destroy  the  bacteria,  the  frozen 
corn  retains  all  the  characteristics  of  green  corn. 

6.  The  gas  given  off  during  silage  fermentation  is  mainly 
carbon  dioxide,  but  in  the  case  of  clover  silage,  also  con- 
tains   hydrogen.     Nitrogen    is    apparently    given    off   in 
small  quantities  in  all  silage  fermentation. 

From  the  above  facts,  silage  fermentation  is  ascribed 
to  respiration  of  the  green  tissues  —  probably  of  an  en- 
zymatic nature  —  and  not  at  all  due  to  bacteria  or  fungi. 
In  silage  exposed  to  the  air  fermentation  by  the  latter  will 
occur,  but  it  is  always  undesirable  and  destructive. 

33.  Advantages  of  silage.  -  -  The  preservation  of 
forage  as  silage  possesses  a  number  of  advantages, 
especially  with  coarse  plants  like  corn  and  sorghum. 
Among  these  advantages  are  :  — 

1.  Silage  preservation  saves  all  of  the  forage  in  edible 
form.  The  loss  both  in  preserving  and  feeding  is  very  small. 


42  FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIE   CULTURE 

2.  Silage  is  more  palatable  than  dry  fodder,  and  animals 
will  eat  a  larger  quantity. 

3.  Silage  preservation  is  not  dependent  on  favorable 
weather  conditions. 

4.  Silage  requires  less  space  for  storage  than  an  equiva- 
lent amount  of  hay  or  fodder. 

5.  When  corn  and  especially  grain  sorghums  are  pre- 
served as  silage,  the  seeds  are  softened  so  that  they  are 
thoroughly  digested. 

While  silage  is  undoubtedly  the  best  way  to  preserve 
corn,  sorghum  and  similar  coarse  plants,  it  has  not 
proven  very  satisfactory  with  legumes  or  hay  grasses, 
perhaps  because  proper  methods  of  ensiling  these  plants 
have  not  been  developed.  Legumes  mixed  with  corn  or 
sorghum  are  very  satisfactory,  but  when  ensiled  alone, 
the  product  seems  frequently  to  be  ill-smelling  and  un- 
palatable. A  more  satisfactory  method  of  ensiling  grasses 
and  clovers  is  a  desideratum  for  regions  where  hay  curing 
is  difficult. 

34.  Crops  adapted  to  ensiling.  —  Corn  is  the  principal 
American  crop  preserved  as  silage,  and  constitutes 
probably  more  than  90  per  cent  of  the  total  amount. 
The  sorghums,  both  saccharine  and  non-saccharine,  are 
also  very  satisfactory,  and  apparently  not  inferior  to 
corn.  Japanese  sugar  cane  has  given  excellent  results 
at  the  Florida  Experiment  Station. 

Meadow  grasses  and  small  grains  are  not  much  used 
for  silage  in  America.  They  are,  however,  thus  preserved 
in  western  Oregon  and  western  Washington  as  well  as  in 
Europe.  Georgeson  reports  the  successful  ensiling  of 
beach  lyme  grass  (Elymus  mollis)  at  the  Alaska  Experi- 
ment Station.  The  silage  kept  well  and  made  satis- 
factory feed  for  oxen.  Millets  have  been  preserved  satis- 
factorily as  silage  at  several  experiment  stations. 


PRESERVATION    OF  FORAGE  43 

Legumes  alone  have  not  proven  altogether  satisfactory 
as  silage.  Red  clover  in  some  experiments  has  yielded 
a  palatable  product,  in  others  rank  flavored  and  not 
relished  by  cattle.  At  the  Colorado  Experiment  Station 
alfalfa  yielded  a  silage  that  was  readily  eaten  by  dairy 
cattle.  Cowpeas  made  good  silage  at  the  Georgia 
and  Delaware  Experiment  Stations ;  while  both  hairy 
vetch  and  soybeans  produced  well-flavored  and  aromatic 
silage  at  the  Vermont  Experiment  Station.  Soybeans 
alone  made  good  silage  at  the  New  Jersey  Experiment 
Station.  Lloyd  reports  that  in  Ohio  sweet  clover  has  been 
used  with  good  results.  One  reason  for  failures  with 
ensilaged  legumes  is  probably  their  higher  water  content, 
as  pointed  out  by  several  investigators.  On  this  account 
such  crops  should  be  allowed  to  become  as  mature  as 
practicable  before  ensiling. 

Mixtures  of  corn  and  legumes  such  as  cowpeas  or  soy- 
beans make  excellent  silage.  In  Ontario  sunflower  heads 
are  often  mixed  in  corn  silage.  The  Vermont  Experi- 
ment Station  tested  the  Robertson  silage  mixture  ;  namely, 
<:orn,  horse  beans  and  sunflower  heads,  but  the  cows  did 
not  eat  it  quite  as  readily  as  pure  corn  silage. 

Peas  and  oats  and  vetch  and  oats  both  proved  very 
satisfactory  at  the  Vermont  Experiment  Station. 

Sugar  beet  pulp,  a  refuse  from  beet  sugar  factories, 
also  makes  a  palatable  silage. 

35.  Soiling  or  soilage.  —  Soiling  is  stall  feeding  with 
green  fodder.  This  method  of  feeding  is  far  more  common 
in  Europe  than  in  America.  It  obviates  the  necessity 
of  curing  much  of  the  forage,  and  the  loss  that  accompanies 
the  process.  For  dairy  cows,  at  least,  it  gives  better 
returns  than  the  feeding  of  an  equivalent  amount  of  dry 
hay.  On  the  other  hand,  it  has  certain  disadvantages, 


44  FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 

particularly  the  cutting  and  hauling  of  small  areas  of  green 
feed  every  day,  regardless  of  weather  conditions, — in  this 
way  not  being  economical  in  the  use  of  labor  and  machinery. 

Soiling  is  well  adapted  mainly  to  the  feeding  of  dairy 
cows,  and  is  practically  the  only  way  to  utilize  certain 
crops,  such  as  thousand-headed  kale  and  spineless  cactus. 
For  short  periods  of  time  —  especially  in  the  absence  or 
scarcity  of  other  feed  —  soiling  is  often  utilized  by  dairy- 
men. 

In  the  tropics,  soiling  is  the  common  method  of  feeding 
roughage,  not  only  to  cattle,  but  to  city  horses.  This  is 
especially  the  case  where  labor  is  cheap,  and  humid  con- 
ditions prevent  the  curing  of  hay.  Grasses  of  various 
kinds  are  cut  green,  tied  into  bundles  and  thus  marketed 
fresh  each  day.  Among  the  grasses  thus  commonly  used 
for  horses  are  Guinea-grass,  Para-grass,  and  Bermuda-grass. 
In  the  Philippine  Islands,  Bareet  grass  (Homalocenchrus 
hexandrus)  is  extensively  cultivated  about  the  towns  for 
this  purpose. 

Soiling  such  crops  as  millet,  kale,  sorghum,  etc.,  is 
usually  preferable  to  pasturing,  at  least  for  cattle.  The 
latter  method  occasions  much  loss  by  trampling,  and 
expense  for  temporary  or  permanent  fences.  On  the 
other  hand,  soiling  involves  the  expense  of  cutting  and 
hauling  green  feed  daily,  and  the  planning  of  a  succession 
of  crops  so  that  each  will  be  ready  when  needed  in  ample 
quantity.  On  these  accounts  soiling  is  seldom  used  in 
America  except  to  tide  over  a  temporary  shortage  of  feed. 
Instead  of  soiling,  the  practice  is  growing  of  feeding  silage 
the  whole  year,  thus  securing  a  succulent  feed  and  avoid- 
ing the  difficulties  involved  in  soiling. 

36.  Soiling  systems.  —  A  succession  of  crops  to  provide 
green  feed  for  a  season  or  for  a  portion  of  a  season  is  called 


PRESERVATION  OF  FORAGE 


45 


a  soiling  system.  To  plan  such  a  succession  of  crops 
requires  accurate  knowledge  of  the  time  required  for  each 
crop  to  reach  its  growth,  the  length  of  time  it  may  be  fed 
and  also  the  average  yield  to  be  expected,  so  that  the 
proper  area  to  be  planted  can  be  accurately  determined. 

Annuals  are  more  convenient  to  use  in  soiling  systems 
than  perennials  because  plantings  of  the  same  crop  can 
be  made  at  successive  dates,  and  its  feeding  period  thus 
extended  over  several  weeks'  time.  Furthermore,  the  land 
becomes  at  once  available  for  other  plantings.  While 
perennials  are  often  utilized  in  soiling  systems,  such  are 
seldom  planted  for  this  purpose  alone,  as  it  is  rarely  econ- 
omy to  plant  them  in  an  area  as  small  as  would  be  required. 

Soiling  systems  for  the  whole  growing  season  have  been 
devised  at  several  experiment  stations,  a  few  examples 
of  which  are  here  given  :  — 
SOILING  SYSTEM  RECOMMENDED  BY  PHELPS  FOR  CONNECTICUT 


CROP 

TIME  OP  SEEDING} 

TIME  OP  FEEDING 

Rve  

Sept.    1 

May  10          -20 

Wheat  
Red  clover  
Grass  
Oats  and  peas  .... 
Oats  and  peas  .... 
Oats  and  peas  .  .  .  . 
Clover  rowen  .... 
Hungarian  millet  .  .  . 
Cowpeas  

Sept.    5-10 
July   20-30 

April  10 
April  20 
April  30 

June  10 
June     5—10 

May  20-June    5 
June     5-          15 
June  15-          25 
June  25-  July  10 
July    10-          20 
July   20-Aug.    1 
Aug.     1-          10 
Aug.  10-          20 
Sept.    5-          20 

Grass  rowen  .... 
Barley  and  peas 

Aug.     5-10 

Sept.  20-          80 
Oct.      1-          30 

At  the  Pennsylvania  Experiment  Station  the  following 
data  were  secured  on  the  date  of  planting  and  yields  of 
various  soiling  crops  :  — 


46 


FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 


YIELD  p 

ER  ACRE 

CROP 

DATE  OF 
SOWING 

DATE  OF 
HARVESTING 

Green 
sub- 
stance 

Air- 
dried 
sub- 
stance 

Flat  peas 

June  17-June  28 

10,004 

1861 

Peas  and  oats 

May    5 

June  29-July    11 

27,671 

3929 

Peas  and  oats 

May  16 

July   12-July    22 

18,137 

2938 

Peas  and  oats 

May  21 

July  22-July    25 

22,773 

3120 

Peas  and  barley 

May  21 

July  26-Aug.     2 

19,415 

3436 

Flat  peas      .     . 

Aug.    3-Aug.    12 

11,782 

2344 

Clover  silage     . 

Cowpeas       and 

milo  maize 

June  11-29 

Aug.  29-Sept.     6 

18,083 

3707 

Black  cowpeas 

June  25 

Sept.    7-Sept.  22 

18,251 

3705 

Red  Ripper  cow- 

peas      .     .     . 

June  25 

Sept.  22-Sept.  25 

11,117 

2590 

The  flat  peas  are,  however,  not  recommended  on  account 
of  difficulty  of  establishing  the  crop,  unpalatability  and 
possible  danger  of  tainting  the  milk.  Rape,  too,  is  not 
recommended  because  not  very  palatable  and  likely  to 
taint  the  milk. 

On  the  basis  of  these  and  other  data  the  station  suggests 
the  following  soiling  system  :  — 

SOILING  SYSTEM  FOR  TEN  Cows 
Based  on  Data  obtained  at  the  Pennsylvania  Experiment  Station 


CROP 

AREA 

WHEN  TO  BE  FED 

Rye       .   '  .    *    *    .     ...     .     . 

2  acre 

May  15-June    1 

Alfalfa 

2  acres 

June    1—  June  12 

CloArer  and  timothy 

f  acre 

June  12-  June  24 

Peas  and  oats     

1  acre 

June  24-  July  15 

Alfalfa  (2d  crop) 

2  acres 

July  15-  Aug.  11 

Sorghum  and  cowpeas  (after  rye) 
Cowpeas  (after  peas  and  oats) 

\  acre 
1  acre 

Aug.  11-Aug.  28 
Aug.  28-Sept.  30 

CHAPTER  III 
CHOICE  OF  FORAGE  CROPS 

THE  number  of  species  of  plants  which  the  domesticated 
animals  or  their  wild  ancestors  devour  for  food  is  very 
large.  While  comparatively  few  of  these  meet  the  needs 
of  profitable  agriculture,  yet  over  100  species  are  more  or 
less  utilized,  while  many  others  have  been  tested  in  an  ex- 
perimental way.  There  is  thus  presented  to  the  agricul- 
turist the  problem  of  determining  which  of  many  possible 
forage  plants  is  the  most  satisfactory  to  grow  under  given 
conditions. 

37.  What  determines  the  choice  of  a  forage  crop.  — 
The  extent  to  which  a  forage  crop  is  grown  in  any  par- 
ticular region  or  for  any  particular  purpose  is  correlated 
with  a  number  of  considerations.  Among  these  the  follow- 
ing are  important :  - 

1.  Purpose  for  which  grown;    namely,   hay,   fodder, 
silage  or  soiling. 

2.  Adaptation  to  the  conditions  of   climate,  soil   and 
culture  in  rotations. 

3.  Yield. 

4.  Cost  of  seeding  per  acre. 

5.  Ease  of  harvesting  and  curing. 

6.  Time  of  harvesting. 

7.  Feeding  value. 

8.  Demands  or  prejudices  of  the  user. 

47 


48  FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIB   CULTURE 

If  the  forage  is  grown  to  sell,  the  last  consideration  is 
often  the  controlling  factor.  It  is  usually  easy  to  deter- 
mine the  characteristics  of  several  forage  crops  as  regards 
each  point  compared.  It  is  sometimes,  however,  difficult 
to  ascertain  why,  on  the  whole,  one  crop  is  preferred  to 
another  closely  comparable. 

38.  Special  purposes  for  which  forage  crops  are  grown. 
-  Forage  crops  may  thus  be  classified,  as  regards  the 

purposes  for  which  they  are  grown  :  — 

1.  Long-lived   meadows,   for  hay;     such   as   timothy, 
alfalfa,  brome-grass,  redtop,  etc. 

2.  Annual  hay  crops ;    such  as  crimson  clover,  millet, 
cowpeas,  rye,  etc.,  often  sown  as  "  catch  "  crops. 

3.  Coarse  grasses  for  silage  or  fodder;    such  as  corn, 
sorghum,  pearl  millet  and  Japanese  sugar-cane. 

4.  Permanent  pastures,  for  which  are  used  Kentucky 
blue-grass,  white  clover,  Bermuda-grass  and  various  more 
or  less  complex  mixtures. 

5.  Temporary    pastures,    using    such    plants    as    rye, 
wheat,   crimson    clover,   cowpeas,   Italian   rye-grass  and 
others. 

6.  Soiling  crops,  often  planted  in  succession  so  as  to  give 
green  feeds  during  definite  periods. 

It  is  obvious  that  most  forage  crops  utilized  for  one 
of  the  above  purposes  are  usually  not  well  fitted  for  other 
purposes. 

39.  Adaptation  to  conditions.  —  Different  forage  crops 
are   adapted  to  widely  different   conditions  of   climate, 
and  this  factor  usually  closely  limits  the  area  in  which 
each  can  be  profitably  grown.     Sometimes  market  con- 
siderations lead  to  the  growing  of  a  crop  under  conditions 
which  are  not  very  favorable,  as  timothy  in  the  South 
and  alfalfa  on  unsuitable  soil  types  in  the  East.     While 


CHOICE  OF  FOE  AGE  CROPS  49 

alfalfa  and  red  clover  both  do  well  in  some  places,  the 
latter  is  much  better  fitted  for  use  in  short  rotations. 

40.  Yields  per  acre.  —  The  yielding  capacities  of  various 
hay  grasses  and  other  closely  comparable  forage  crops 
have  been  tested  at  various  experiment  stations.  In 
comparatively  few  places,  however,  have  such  experi- 
ments been  adequate  to  reach  clear  conclusions.  Some 
of  the  experiment  station  results  are  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying table.  Usually  yield  per  acre  is  the  most  im- 
portant single  characteristic  upon  which  the  popularity 
of  a  good  forage  crop  depends.  In  some  areas,  and  under 
certain  conditions,  a  particular  forage  crop  will  so  far  out- 
yield  all  others  that  there  is  practically  no  choice.  Thus 
alfalfa  is  by  far  the  heaviest  yielding  hay  crop  for  the 
irrigated  lands  of  the  West,  and  sorghum  usually  gives  far 
larger  returns  than  any  other  comparable  crop  on  much 
of  the  dry  land  area. 

European  yields  that  are  commonly  quoted  are  often 
based  on  very  small  plots,  necessitating  multiplication  by 
a  large  factor  to  secure  the  acre  yield.  Thus  the  English 
yields  reported  by  Sinclair  were  usually  based  on  weighing 
the  grass  and  hay  from  an  area  two  feet  square;  and 
those  of  Vianne  in  France  on  areas  little  if  any  larger. 

Some  yields  reported  by  American  experiment  sta- 
tions are  also  based  on  very  small  plots.  While  these 
as  a  rule  give  results  that  can  hardly  be  secured  on  larger 
plantings,  yet  they  do  give  comparable  values.  In  the 
accompanying  table,  the  hay  grasses  are  arranged  in  the 
approximate  order  of  their  importance.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  this  order  is  in  many  cases  not  consistent  with  their 
yielding  capacities.  It  is  questionable,  however,  if  the 
results  at  any  one  experiment  station  are  sufficiently  ex- 
haustive to  admit  of  a  definite  conclusion  :  — 


50 


FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 


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CHOICE  OF  FORAGE  CROPS 


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52 


FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 


41.  Yields  under  irrigation.  —  Under  irrigation  in  the 
Western  States  no  other  hay  plant  will  produce  such 
high  yields  as  alfalfa.     The  most  extensive  investigations 
comparing  different  hay  crops  under  irrigation  have  been 
conducted  at  the  Utah  Experiment  Station.     Up  to  a 
certain  maximum,  the  yields  tend  to  increase  with  the 
amount  of  water  applied,  but  the  highest  return  per  inch 
of  water  is  secured  with  the  smallest  applications.     See 
table,  p.  51. 

42.  Cost  of  seeding.  —  The  cost  of  seeding   per  acre 
is  in  some  cases  a  reason  for  preference  where  choice  is 
possible,  as  is  shown  in  the  following  table.     The  prices 
given  are  New  York  wholesale  prices  in  January,  1914  :  — 

COST  OF  SEED  PER  ACRE,  USING  AVERAGE  AMOUNT 


•    PLANT 

RATE  OF 
SEEDING 

COST  OP 
SEED  PER 
POUND 

COST  OP 
SEED  PER 
ACRE 

Timothy      .     .     ...     .     .     . 

Pounds 

15 

Cents 

6i 

$ 

.975 

Orchard-grass  , 

20 

15 

3.00 

10 

10 

1  00 

Brome-grass     .     .     »     . 

20 

10 

200 

Kentucky  blue-grass 
Italian  rye-grass  
Perennial  rye-grass   .... 
Tall  oat-grass  ...          . 

25 
30 
30 
30 

14 
5 
5 
14 

3.50 
1.50 
1.50 
4.20 

Tall  fescue  

20 

18 

3.60 

Meadow  fescue     •     •     . 

20 

11 

220 

Red  clover  . 

8 

17 

1  36 

Alsike  clover    

12 

20 

2.40 

Alfalfa    

20 

15 

3.00 

Sweet  clover 

25 

20 

500 

The  cost  of  some  of  these  seeds  would  be  much  reduced 
if  the  demand  for  them  were  greater. 


CHOICE  OF  FORAGE  CROPS          53 

In  the  case  of  many  grasses  the  high  cost  of  the  seeds  is 
more  due  to  small  demand  than  to  high  cost  of  production. 

43.  Time  of  harvesting.  —  The  time  of  harvesting  some 
hay  plants  is  much  earlier  than  that  of  others.     Further- 
more, some  hay  plants  must  be  promptly  harvested  at 
a  certain  stage,  or  otherwise  the  crop  deteriorates,  and 
in  some  cases  the  subsequent  growth  is  affected.     It  is 
obviously  unsatisfactory  to  have  the  haying  season  come 
at  a  time  when  other  farm  work  is  pressing.     It  is  even 
more  so  if  the  crop  is  one  that  must  be  cut  during  a  very 
brief  period,  as  both  unfavorable  weather  and  press  of 
other   work  may  interfere.     Timothy  remains   in   good 
condition  to  cut  much  longer  than  most  grasses.     Alfalfa 
with  its  frequent  cuttings  often  comes  into  conflict  with 
other  farm  operations. 

44.  Ease   of  harvesting   and   curing.  —  This  factor  is 
important   mainly   in   determining   the    choice   between 
forages  of  approximately  equal  yields.     Corn  is  preferred 
to   sorghum   partly   because   it   deteriorates   less   easily, 
partly  because  sorghums  are  considered  "  hard  on  the  land." 
Timothy  is  preferred  over  other  similar  grasses  partly 
because  its  mowing  season  extends  over  a  period  of  two 
or  three  weeks,  thus  permitting  a  better  chance  of  good 
curing  weather.     Alfalfa  is  handicapped  in  humid  regions 
by  the  necessity  of  prompt  cutting  when  mature,  and  the 
difficulty- of  curing.     Cowpeas  are  notoriously  difficult  to 
harvest  and  cure,  and  partly  for  this  reason  soybeans  are 
becoming  more  popular. 

45.  Demands  or  prejudices  of  the  user. — Where  hay 
is  grown  to  market,  the  demand  or  prejudice  of  the  user 
is  frequently  the  principal  factor  that  determines  the  crop 
to  be  grown.     Such  market  prejudices  are  the  result  of 
long-established  experience  or  custom,  and   even   where 
erroneous,  are  changed  only  with  great  difficulty. 


54  FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 

In  most  American  cities,  the  market  is  strongly  prej- 
udiced in  favor  of  timothy  hay  as  horse  feed,  so  that  any 
other  sort  of  grass  hay  commands  a  smaller  price.  In 
Europe,  on  the  contrary,  Italian  rye-grass  furnishes  the 
popular  market  hay,  though  timothy  apparently  grows 
quite  as  well  in  Europe  as  in  America. 

Cattle  feeders  in  the  West  favor  alfalfa  greatly,  and 
are  willing  to  pay  considerably  more  for  alfalfa  hay  than 
for  any  other. 

In  £he  region  where  Kentucky  blue-grass  does  well  it  is 
almost  the  only  grass,  sown  for  permanent  pastures. 
European  farmers  do  not  regard  it  nearly  so  highly,  and 
in  their  practice  usually  plant  more  or  less  complex 
mixtures  of  grass  seeds  for  pasture. 

46.  Feeding    values.  —  The    problem    of    determining 
the  relative  values  of  roughages  for  feeding  purposes  is 
involved  and  difficult.     Three  general  methods  have  been 
employed,  namely :  — 

1.  Direct  feeding  experiments  in  which  the  value  of 
the  compared  feeds  is  determined  by  the  results  secured, 
whether  in  milk,  flesh,  wool,  labor,  etc. 

2.  Determination  by  chemical  analyses  of  the  nutrient 
substances  contained  in  the  feed,  and  the  proportion  di- 
gested by  the  animal,  the  latter  constituting  the  digestible 
nutrients. 

3.  Determination  of  the  net  energy  of  a  feed-;  namely, 
that   available  to  the  production  of  milk,  flesh  and  the 
like. 

47.  Feeding     experiments.  —  Simple    feeding    experi- 
ments may  be  planned  so  that  two  single  feeds  may  be 
directly  compared  with  each  other  or  both  may  be  com- 
pared to  a  third  taken  as  a  standard.     To  secure  reliable 
results  in  feeding  experiments,   both  care  and  skill  are 


CHOICE  OF  FORAGE  CROPS          55 

required.  Broadly  speaking,  the  reliability  of  the  results 
will  depend  upon  the  uniformity  of  the  animals  as  to  size, 
sex,  age,  used  in  the  experiment ;  upon  the  number  of 
individuals  used;  and  upon  the  length  of  time  the  ex- 
periment continues. 

But  few  experiments  in  which  two  roughages  have  been 
compared  fulfill  the  above  requirements,  but  •  the  results 
secured  in  American  experiments  with  grass  or  legume 
hays  are  cited  in  connection  with  the  feeding  value  of  each 
particular  hay. 

Perhaps  the  most  extensive  data  from  direct  feeding 
trials  are  those  secured  in  Denmark  and  Sweden  in  con- 
nection with  the  feeding  of  dairy  cows.  In  these  trials 
the  standard  of  value  or  feed  unit  is  one  pound  of  dry 
matter  in  corn,  wheat,  barley,  palm-nut  meal  or  roots, 
with  which  the  value  of  other  feeds  as  determined  by 
actual  feeding  is  compared. 

The  results  thus  far  reached  lead  to  the  conclusion 
that  for  milk  production  there  is  required  to  equal  1  feed 
unit  2  to  3  (average  2.5)  pounds  hay ;  6  to  10  (average  8) 
pounds  silage,  green  clover  or  mixed  green  grasses ;  8  to 
12  (average  10)  pounds  mangels,  rutabagas  and  carrots; 
10  to  15  (average  12.5)  pounds  turnips ;  12  to  18  (average 
15)  pounds  beet  leaves. 

Woll  has  determined  tentatively  that  the  following 
amounts  of  American  feeds  probably  equal  1  feed  unit; 
namely,  1.5  to  3  (average  2)  pounds  alfalfa  or  mixed  hay, 
oat  hay,  oat  and  pea  hay,  barley  and  pea  hay  or  redtop 
hay ;  2.5  to  3.5  (average  3)  pounds  timothy  hay,  'prairie 
hay  or  sorghum  hay ;  3.5  to  6  (average  4.2)  pounds  corn 
stover,  stalks  or  fodder,  marsh  hay  or  cut  straw. 

It  by  no  means  follows  that  the  relative  value  of  these 
feeds  for  dairy  cows  represents  their  respective  value  for 


56  FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 

other  animals,  for  which  separate  feeding  trials  would 
need  to  be  conducted. 

48.  Chemical  analyses.  —  Chemical  analyses  of  feeds 
usually  consider  the  dry  matter  as  made  up  of  crude 
protein,  that  is,  the  nitrogen  multiplied  by  6.25 ;    ether 
extract,  sometimes  called  fat,  the  materials  soluble  in  ether 
and    consisting   of   fats,    resins,    chlorophyll    and    other 
substances;    ash,  the  mineral  matters  that  remain  after 
incineration  of  a  sample;    crude  fiber,  the  portion  that 
remains  undissolved  after  boiling  successively  in  a  weak 
acid  and  a  weak  alkali  under  standard  conditions;  and 
nitrogen-free  extract,  the  remaining  matter  after  the  above 
are  subtracted,   and  consisting  mainly  of  starches  and 
sugars.     In  recent  years  part  of  the  nitrogen-free  extract 
has  been  determined  as  pentosans,  while  the  remainder 
has  been  called  undetermined. 

Chemical  analyses  of  the  same  plant  species  may  vary 
greatly,  depending  on  the  soil  in  which  the  plant  grew, 
the  stage  when  cut,  the  amount  of  irrigation  water  applied 
or  the  presence  of  fungous  disease.  Indeed,  any  factor 
which  affects  the  growth  of  the  plant  also  affects  its 
composition. 

In  different  American  analyses  of  timothy  hay  the 
protein  content  varies  from  3.75  to  9.69  per  cent,  and  in 
European  analyses  from  4.7  to  10.8  per  cent;  the  ether 
extract  from  .97  to  3.98  per  cent  in  American  and  1.1  to 
3.8  per  cent  in  European  analyses. 

Chemical  analyses  can  in  no  sense  replace  feeding  ex- 
periments in  determining  feeding  values.  With  a  new 
forage  plant  a  chemical  analysis  can  throw  no  light  on 
palat ability,  digestibility  or  physiological  effect. 

49.  Chemical  composition  as  affected  by  soil  fertility 
and  by  fertilizers.  —  Extensive  experiments  on  the  effect 


CHOICE  OF  FORAGE  CROPS 


57 


of  fertilizers  on  the  protein  content  of  grasses  were  con- 
ducted at  the  Connecticut  (Storrs)  Experiment  Station. 
In  every  case  the  protein  content  of  the  grass  was  greater 
when  nitrogen  was  applied  in  fertilizers  than  when  it  was 
not.  In  general,  the  protein  content  of  the  grass  increased 
with  the  amount  of  nitrogen  applied  as  fertilizer.  The 
results  of  73  experiments  are  summarized  in  the  following 
table :  — 

TABLE   SHOWING  PERCENTAGE   OF   PROTEIN   IN   TIMOTHY   AND 
OTHER  GRASSES  AS  RELATED  TO  FERTILIZERS  APPLIED 


RESULTS  OF  ANALYSES  SHOWING  RELATION  BETWEEN  NITROGEN  APPLIED  IN 
FERTILIZERS  AND  PROTEIN  (N.  x  6.25)  FOUND  IN  RESULTING  CROPS 


No.  of  ex- 
periments 

Phos.  acid 
and  potash 
(mixed 
minerals) 

Mixed 
minerals 
and  25  Ib. 
nitrogen 
per  acre 

Mixed 
minerals 
and  50  Ib. 
nitrogen 
per  acre 

Mixed 
minerals 
and  75  Ib. 
nitrogen 
per  acre 

Mixed  grasses 

5 

7.6  i 

7.6 

8.8 

9^8 

Orchard-grass 

2 

8.9 

10.2 

— 

12.6 

Timothy      .     . 

2 

7.7 

8.1 

— 

10.6 

Redtop        .     . 

3 

— 

8.3 

— 

11.7 

7    other    pure 

grasses     .     . 

7 

10.2 

— 

12.1 

At  the  New  York  Experiment  Station  in  1887,  fertilizing 
plots  of  timothy  and  Italian  rye-grass  did  not  indicate 
any  definite  effect  upon  the  protein  composition,  ap- 
parently because  there  was  already  ample  nitrogen  in  the 
soil.  The  experiment  was  repeated  in  1888,  and  in  every 
case  where  nitrogen  fertilizers  were  added  the  proteid 
content  of  the  timothy  was  increased. 

Similar  work  has  been  conducted  at  other  experiment 

1  Included  more  clover  than  other  plots. 


58 


FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR    CULTURE 


stations  and  much  along  the  same  line  in  Europe.  There 
remains  no  doubt  that  the  chemical  content  of  plants  is 
directly  influenced  by  the  soil,  and  that  other  things  being 
equal  the  richest  feed,  especially  of  grasses,  is  that  grown 
on  the  most  fertile  soil. 

50.  Chemical  composition  as  affected  by  stage  of 
maturity.  —  The  variation  in  chemical  composition  de- 
pending on  stage  of  development  has  been  studied  in  many 
plants  by  many  investigators. 

The  results  secured  in  1890  by  Stone  at  the  New  Hamp- 
shire Experiment  Station  are  here  cited :  — 

TIMOTHY  —  CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION  AS  AFFECTED  BY  TIME 
OF  HARVESTING 


WATER 

ASH 

PRO- 
TEIN 

FIBER 

N.-FREE 

EXTRACT 

FAT 

Average      height      of 

plants  8  inches    .     . 

4.33 

5.16 

11.54 

19.23 

54.64 

5.10 

Heads  appearing     .     . 

5.85 

6.19 

9.14 

24.28 

50.71 

3.83 

Heads     beginning     to 

bloom         .... 

5.35 

5.47 

7.00 

26.09 

53.66 

2.43 

Heads  in  full  bloom     . 

6.37 

5.81 

6.81 

26.60 

51.88 

2.53 

Seed  forming      .     .     . 

7.37 

5.03 

5.81 

26.86 

52.23 

2.70 

Seed  becoming  hard 

7.51 

5.03 

6.25 

26.10 

52.85 

2.26 

51.  Variation  in  chemical  composition  from  unascer- 
tained causes.  —  In  any  series  of  chemical  analyses  of  a 
hay  plant  such  as  timothy  there  is  a  wide  variation  shown 
in  the  amount  of  each  constituent. 

The  following  table  shows  the  average  and  extremes 
for  each  constituent  in  the  68  American  analyses  of  timothy 
compiled  by  Jenkins  and  Winton  and  29  European  analyses 
compiled  by  Stebler  and  Volkart :  — 


CHOICE  OF  FOE  AGE  CROPS 


59 


ANALYSES  OF  TIMOTHY  HAY 


PERCENTAGE  COMPOSITION 

CHEMICAL  ANALYSES 

No.  OF 
ANAL- 
YSES 

Water 

Ash 

Protein 

Fiber 

N.-free 
Extract 

Fat 

American  :  — 

Average     .     . 

68 

13.18 

4.37 

5.87 

29.03 

45.08 

2.47 

Minimum  . 

6.12 

2.50 

3.75 

22.20 

34.27 

0.97 

Maximum  .     . 

28.88 

6.34 

9.69 

38.46 

58.52 

3.98 

European  :  — 

Average 

29 

14.3 

5.0 

6.9 

26.2 

45.0 

2.6 

Minimum  .     . 

3.2 

4.7 

13.6 

36.4 

1.1 

Maximum  . 

7.3 

10.8 

37.5 

50.6 

3.8 

52.  Digestible  nutrients.  —  To  determine  the  digestible 
nutrients  of  a  feed,  it  is  fed  to  an  animal  under  test  con- 
ditions and  the  voided  matter  in  the  feces  is  then  analyzed. 
The  difference  is  the  digestible  portion,  which  is  usually 
expressed  as  a  percentage  of  the  whole,  and  is  called 
the  coefficient  of  digestibility.  The  coefficient  of  digestibil- 
ity varies  considerably.  It  is  affected  more  or  less  — 

1.  By  the  kind  of  animal  employed,  especially  the  horse 
as  compared  to  ruminants ; 

2.  By  the  individuality  of  the  animal ; 

3.  By  the  stage  of  development  of  the  plant  when  cut, 
young  plants  being  more  digestible; 

4.  By  the  age  of  the  feed,  fresh  being  better  than  old ; 

5.  By  fine  cutting  of  the  feed  in  some  cases ; 

6.  Sometimes  by  other  feeds  in  the  ration  ; 
Digestibility   is   not    appreciably   affected   by   drying, 

moistening  or  cooking. 

In  *  thus  comparing  the  different  feeds  it  is  assumed 
that  the  digestible  portions  of  the  protein,  carbohydrates; 


60 


FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 


fats,  and  fiber  in  different  plants  are  each  of  equal  nutritive 
value,  although  they  differ  considerably  in  actual  composi- 
tion, and  as  is  now  known,  in  actual  feeding  value.  The 
method  of  digestible  nutrients  requires  much  less  time  and 
expense  than  the  direct  method  of  actual  feeding,  but 
the  results  are  less  reliable.  In  the  absence  of  actual 
feeding  experiments,  however,  it  furnishes  an  approxi- 
mation of  the  feeding  value  of  the  substance  in  question. 

The  feeding  value  of  a  substance  of  which  only  a  chemi- 
cal analysis  is  available  may  be  conjectured  by  assuming 
that  the  coefficient  of  digestibility  is  the  same  as  that  of 
some  similar  feed. 

In  the  accompanying  table  is  shown  the  amount  of 
digestible  nutrients  in  four  grass  hays,  four  legume  hays, 
and  two  concentrates  :  — 

TABLE  SHOWING  POUNDS  OF  DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS  IN 
100  POUNDS  DRY  MATTER.     (HENRY) 


KIND  OP  FEED 

PROTEIN 

CARBO- 
HYDRATES 

ETHER 
EXTRACT 

Johnson-grass  

2.9 

45.6 

0.8 

Timothy      
Redtop                       .... 

2.8 
4.8 

42.4 
46.9 

1.3 
1.0 

Bermuda 

64 

449 

1  6 

Red  clover        .                ... 

7.1 

37.8 

1.8 

Crimson  clover     
Sweet  clover 

10.5 
11.9 

34.9 
36.7 

1.2 
0.5 

Alfalfa    

11.4 

40.0 

0.8 

Bran 

11.9 

42.0 

2.5 

Shelled  corn     

7.8 

66.8 

4.3 

Attempts  have  often  been  made  to  determine  the  rela- 
tive value  of  a  feed  in  a  single  term  by  assigning  a  defi- 
nite value  per  pound  to  the  protein,  the  fat,  the  carbo- 


CHOICE  OF  FORAGE  CROPS 


61 


hydrates  and  the  fiber  digested.  No  matter  what  value 
is  assigned  to  each  of  these  constituents,  the  results  secured 
vary  considerably  from  the  market  prices.  Nevertheless, 
the  price  of  protein  feeds  is  based  to  some  extent  on  their 
protein  content. 

TABLE  SHOWING  THE  RELATIVE  MONEY  VALUE  OF  VARIOUS 
FEEDS,  DETERMINED  BY  ASSUMING  VALUES  TO  EACH  DIGEST- 
IBLE NUTRIENT 


KIND  OF  FEED 

PROTEIN  $.037 
CARBOHY.  .014 
FAT             .032 

-  -  -  $.04 
.01 
---    .02 

---$.04 
---    .0125 
---    .02 

---$.025 
---    .01 
---    .0225 

---  $.03 
.01 
---    .02 

Grass  hay  :  — 

Johnson-grass 

$15.04 

$11.76 

$14.04 

$10.93 

$ii.i8 

Timothy     .     .     . 

14.89 

11.24 

13.36 

10.49 

10.70 

Redtop  .... 

17.51 

13.42 

15.76 

12.19 

12.66 

Bermuda    . 

18.59 

14.74 

16.98 

12.90 

13.46 

Average  value 

per  ton    .     . 

16.53 

12.79 

15.04 

11.63 

12.00 

Legume  hay  :  — 

Red  clover      .     . 

19.27 

13.96 

15.86 

11.92 

12.54 

Crimson  clover    . 

18.31 

15.86 

17.66 

12.77 

13.76 

Sweet  clover  .     . 

19.88 

17.06 

18.90 

13.52 

14.68 

Alfalfa  .... 

19.99 

16.94 

18.90 

13.64 

14.72 

Average  value 

per  ton     .     . 

19.36 

15.96 

17.83 

12.76 

13.93 

Concentrates  :  — 

Bran      .... 

22.65 

18.92 

21.02 

15.48 

16.54 

Shelled  corn    .     . 

27.54 

21.32 

24.68 

19.35 

19.76 

Gluten  feed     .     . 

35.31 

30.76 

33.40 

21.42 

26.50 

Cottonseed   meal 

41.46 

35.74 

35.82 

27.54 

27.22 

Average  value 

per  ton     .     . 

31.74 

26.64 

25.73 

20.95 

22.51 

In  the   above    table  the   values   of   various   feeds  has 
been  figured  in  terms  of  money  by  determining  the  average 


62  FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

values  of  the  digestible  proteins,  carbohydrates  and  fat 
a  pound  in  timothy  taken  at  $15  a  ton,  bran  at  $27.60 
a  ton,  gluten  feed  at  $30  a  ton,  cottonseed  meal 
at  $32  a  ton,  and  alfalfa  at  $20  a  ton.  By  comparing 
timothy  with  each  of  the  others  in  order  the  value  of 
the  carbohydrates  is  determined  respectively  as  $.012, 
$.015,  $.014  and  $.014  a  pound,  an  average  of  $.014. 
The  respective  values  for  the  protein  are  $.066,  $.025,  $.025 
and  $.041  a  pound, — an  average  of  $.039.  The  average 
value  of  the  fat  similarly  determined  is  $.032  a  pound. 

In  the  other  four  columns  of  the  table  arbitrary  values 
are  given  to  the  nutrients  for  comparison. 

In  a  general  way  the  figures  show  correspondence  to 
market  value.  How  nearly  they  may  represent  the  true 
relative  values  of  the  feeds  does  not  appear  in  the  light  of 
present  knowledge. 

53.  Net  energy  values.  —  The  energy  value  of  a  feed  is 
determined  by  an  instrument  called  a  calorimeter,  and 
is  measured  in  therms  of  1000  calories.  A  calorie  is  the 
amount  of  heat  required  to  raise  1  kilogram  of  water  1 
degree  Centigrade. 

The  net  energy  value  of  a  feed  is  that  which  remains 
after  deducting  from  its  total  energy  value  that  lost  in  the 
feces,  in  the  urine,  in  gases  and  in  the  work  of  mastication, 
digestion  and  assimilation.  The  loss  in  gases  and  in  the 
labor  of  assimilating  the  feed  is  measured  by  keeping  the 
animal  in  a  special  apparatus  —  the  respiration  calorim- 
eter. 

From  investigations  conducted  at  the  Pennsylvania 
Experiment  Station,  Dr.  H.  P.  Armsby  has  determined 
the  net  energy  values  for  a  number  of  roughages  as  well 
as  concentrates.  The  energy  values  of  the  roughage 
feeds  are  shown  in  the  following  table :  — 


CHOICE  OF  FORAGE  CROPS 


63 


ENERGY  VALUE  OF  ROUGHAGE  IN  100  POUNDS 


FEEDING  STUFF 


TOTAL  DR.Y 
MATTER 


DIGESTIBLE 

TRUE 
PROTEIN 


NET 
ENERGY 
VALUE 


Pounds 

Green  fodder  and  silage  :  — 

Alfalfa 28.2 

Clover,  crimson     ....  19.1 

Clover,  red        29.2 

Corn  fodder,  green     .     .     .  20.7 

Corn  silage        25.6 

Hungarian  grasn    ....  28.9 

Rape 14.3 

Rye 23.4 

Timothy 38.4 

Hay  and  dry  coarse  fodders  :  — 

Alfalfa  hay        91.6 

Clover  hay,  red      ....  84.7 

Corn  forage,  field  cured       .  57.8 

Corn  stover 59.5 

Cowpea  hay 89.3 

Hungarian  hay      ....  92.3 

Oat  hay        84.0 

Soybean  hay 88.7 

Timothy  hay 86.8 

Straws :  — 

Oat  straw 90.8 

Rye  straw 92.9 

Wheat  straw 90.4 

Roots  and  tubers  :  — 

Carrots 11.4 

Mangel-wurzels     ....  9.1 

Potatoes 21.1 

Rutabagas 11.4 

Turnips 9.4 


Pounds 

2.50 
2.19 
2.21 
.41 
1.21 
1.33 
2.16 
1.44 
1.04 

6.93 
5.41 
2.13 
1.80 

8.57 
3.00 
2.59 
7.68 
2.05 

1.09 
.63 
.37 

.37 
.14 
.45 

.88 
.22 


Therms 

12.45 
11.30 
16.17 
12.44 
16.56 
14.76 
11.43 
11.63 
19.08 

34.41 
34.74 
30.53 
26.53 
40.76 
44.03 
26.97 
38.65 
33.56 

21.21 
20.87 
16.56 

7.82 
4.62 
18.05 
8.00 
5.74 


These   values  have  been  secured   wholly  from  experi- 
ments on  fattening  cattle. 

"Even  for  this  purpose  many  of  them  are  confessedly  approxi- 
mate estimates,  and  still  less  can  they  be  regarded  as  strictly 


64     FORAGE  PLANTS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE 

accurate  for  other  kinds  of  animals  and  other  purposes  of  feeding. 
Nevertheless,  there  seems  to  be  reason  for  believing  that  they  also 
represent  fairly  well  the  relative  values  of  feeding  stuffs  for  sheep 
at  least,  and  probably  for  horses,  and  for  growth  and  milk  pro- 
duction as  well  as  for  fattening.  At  any  rate,  there  can  be  little 
doubt  that  they  are  decidedly  more  accurate  than  the  figures 
which  have  been  commonly  used,  and  we  are  quite  justified  in 
using  them  tentatively  and  subject  to  correction  by  the  results 
of  later  experiments. 

"As  regards  swine,  the  matter  is  far  less  certain,  and  it  may 
perhaps  be  questioned  whether  the  values  given  in  the  table  are 
any  more  satisfactory  for  this  animal  than  the  older  ones." 

54.  Starch  values.  —  The  unit  of  this  system  proposed 
by  Kellner  is  one  pound  of  digestible  starch  for  beef  pro- 
duction.    Kellner   found   that   one   pound   of   digestible 
starch  in  excess  to  a  maintenance  ration  would  form  ap- 
proximately   one-fourth    pound    of    fat.     On    this    basis 
1  pound  of  digestible  protein  is  equal  to  .94  pound  of 
digestible  starch,  and  1  pound  of  oil  in  seeds  equals  2.41 
pounds  of  digestible  starch  in  fattening  value. 

These  values  are  in  excess  of  what  the  animal  actually 
gets  from  the  feed,  so  that  arbitrary  deductions  have  to  be 
made  to  compensate  for  the  work  of  mastication  and 
digestion. 

55.  Comparison    of    feeding    values.  —  Woll    has    en- 
deavored to  reduce  to  a  common  basis  the  relative  values 
of  various  feeds  as  determined  by  the  feed  unit  system,  by 
Kellner's  starch  values  and  by  Armsby's  therms.      The 
average  of  the  net  energy  values  of  corn,  wheat,  rye,  barley 
and  wheat  middlings  is  approximately  80  therms,  which  is 
considered  equal  to   1  feed  unit.     By  the  same  method 
83  starch  values  is  equivalent  to  1  feed  unit.     In  general, 
the  corresponding  values  by  the  three  methods  are  close, 
but  there  are  some  marked  exceptions  :  — 


CHOICE  OF  FORAGE  CROPS 


65 


TABLE   SHOWING  COMPARISON  OF  THERMS,  STARCH  VALUES 
AND  FEED  UNITS 


STARCH 

FEED 

UNITS 

(KELLNER) 

Aver- 
age 

Range 

Corn      .     .     .     / 
Wheat    .... 
Rye        .... 
Barley   .... 
Wheat  middlings 

88.8        Ratio 
82.6 
81.7     80  i  =  1.00 
80.8 

77.7 

O/l    0                                       qc 

.74 

.85 
.85     .83  i 
.89 
.83 

00 

1.0 



Oil  meal     .     .     . 

78.9                 1.01 
70  o                     in 

.84 
q 

.9 
q 



Gk  ten  feed     .     . 
Dried       brewers' 

79.3                 1.0 
fin  n                1  °. 

.9 
i  i 

.9 



Peas       .... 

71.8                1.1 

Af\  Q                             17 

.9 
1  fi 

.0 
i 



Oa  t« 

fifi  Q                              1O 

i  n 

i 

4-8  9                      17 

1  2^ 

i 

Sugar  beet  pulp, 

f\r\  I                       10 

1    0 

1     1 

Alfalfa  hay 
Timothy  hay  .     . 
Corn  stover     .     . 
Oat  straw 
Green  alfalfa  .     . 
Green  corn      .     . 
Corn  silage 
Potatoes     .     .     . 

r^nrrnt 

34.4                 2.3 
33.6                 2.4 
26.5                 3.0 
21.2                 3.8 
12.5                 6.4 
12.4                 6.5 
16.6                 4.8 
18.1                 4.4 
7  s              in  °. 

1.9 
2.6 
3.0 
3.6 
7.2 
8.3 
7.7 
3.2 
7  n 

2.0 
3.0 
4.0 
4.0 
7.0 
8.0 
6.0 
6.0 
Q  n 

1.5-3.0 
2.5-3.5 
3.0-6.0 
4.0-5.0 
6-8 
6-10 
5-7 
4-6 

Turnips 
Rutabagas      .     . 

5.7               14.1 
8.0               10.0 

12.6 
10.4 

12.5 
9.0 

11-15 
9-10 

In  figuring  the  values  of  the  feeds  according  to  the 
digestible  nutrients,  redtop,  johnson-grass  'and  Bermuda 


Assumed  average  figures. 


66          FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

are  apparently  all  more  valuable  than  timothy ;  and  sweet 
clover  fully  as  valuable  as  alfalfa. 

If  measured  by  therms,  cowpea  hay  is  superior  to  alfalfa, 
and  Hungarian-grass  to  either ;  while  corn  stover  is 
practically  as  valuable  as  oat  hay. 

It  may  be  that  the,  relative  values  assigned  to  roughage 
based  on  experience  and  reflected  in  market  values  are  as 
erroneous  as  the  above  data  would  indicate.  It  is  apparent 
that  much  further  work  is  necessary  before  there  can  be 
agreement  as  to  the  comparative  feeding  values  of  rough- 
age for  different  purposes. 


.  CHAPTER  IV 
SEEDS  AND  SEEDING 

NOTHING  is  more  important  than  the  seeds,  as  to  quality 
and  name,  in  the  growing  of  a  crop.  The  best  of  land  and 
preparation  and  the  best  effort  in  tillage  may  bring  small 
return  if  the  seed  is  not  good,  clean  and  true  to  name. 

56.  Quality.  —  The  quality  of  seeds  depends  on  various 
characteristics,    especially   genuineness,    purity   and   via- 
bility.    Other  points  of  more  or  less  importance  are  age, 
size,    plumpness,    color,    weight   per    bushel,    source  of 
seed  and  in  some  cases  freedom  from  insects  and  such 
diseases  as  smut.     Among  the  legumes  the  percentage  of 
hard  seeds  is  also  to  be  considered. 

The  determination  of  the  actual  quality  of  the  seed 
requires  special  knowledge  and  experience.  In  the  first 
place  the  sample  must  be  representative  of  the  bulk.  The 
other  seeds  present  either  as  impurities  or  adulterants 
should  be  identified  to  prevent  fraud  and  to  avoid  intro- 
ducing noxious  weeds.  Finally,  many  forage  seeds  — 
especially  grasses  —  require  much  care  and  special 
apparatus  to  secure  a  fair  test  of  germination. 

For  these  reasons,  most  forage  crop  seeds  should  be 
purchased  under  guarantee,  or  a  sample  secured  first, 
to  be  referred  to  a  seed  laboratory. 

57.  Genuineness.  —  By  this  term  is  meant  the  trueness 
of  the  seed  to  name.     As  most  forage  crops  do  not  contain 
special  varieties,  this  is  readily  determined  by  comparison 

67 


68          FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

with  authentic  samples.  In  other  crops,  however,  special 
varieties  are  often  indistinguishable  by  their  seeds,  so  that 
one  must  depend  upon  the  reliability  or  the  guarantee 
of  the  seedsmen.  Among  forage  crops,  mammoth  and 
medium  red  clover,  and  Grimm  and  ordinary  alfalfa  are 
examples  of  varieties  indistinguishable  by  their  seeds. 

58.  Purity.  —  By  the  purity  of  seed  is  meant  its  freedom 
from  foreign  matter,   whether  trash,   chaff,   weed  seeds 
or  adulterants.     With  the  exception  of  perhaps  the  last- 
mentioned,  impurities  are  far  more  common  in  forage 
crop  seeds  than  in  any  others.     This  is  due  partly  to  the 
fact   that  most   grasses   and   many  legumes   are   grown 
broadcasted,  and  it  is  rarely  possible  to  keep  the  fields 
free  from  weeds.     Furthermore,  grass  seeds  as  a  rule  are 
light  in  weight,  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  remove  chaff,  small 
pieces  of  straw  and  the  like. 

The  impurities  that  usually  occur  in  each  region  where 
seed  is  largely  grown  are  well  known,  so  that  if  any  others 
are  present,  it  is  strong  evidence  of  adulteration. 

59.  Viability.  —  The  viability  of  seed  or  capacity  for 
germination  depends  upon  many  factors,  among  which 
are  the  conditions  of  the  season  when  grown,  the  care 
exercised  in  harvesting  and  curing,  the  manner  in  which 
it  has  been  stored,  and  the  age  of  the  seed. 

Viability  is  tested  in  laboratories  by  means  of  special 
germinators  in  which  the  temperature,  moisture,  ventila- 
tion and  light  can  be  controlled.  The  best  temperature 
varies  somewhat  for  the  different  species.  For  most 
grasses  the  temperatures  between  68  degrees  and  86 
degrees  Fahrenheit  are  considered  best,  and  it  is  found 
advantageous  to  use  the  higher  temperature  6  hours  and 
the  lower  18  hours  each  day. 

Most  kinds  of  farm  seeds  may,  however,  be  tested  in 


SEEDS  AND   SEEDING  69 

very  simple  germinators,  such  as  in  a  box  of  sand,  or  be- 
tween two  moist  cloths  in  a  covered  dish.  Grass  seeds 
are,  however,  more  exacting  in  the  conditions  they  require 
than  most  other  farm  seeds,  so  that  misleading  results 
may  easily  be  secured. 

The  length  of  time  required  by  different  seeds  to  ger- 
minate also  varies  widely.  With  most  sorts  ten  days  is 
sufficient  time  to  allow,  but  many  grasses  require  twice 
this  amount  of  time. 

60.  Actual  value  of  seed.  —  The  real  or  actual  value 
of  seed  for  sowing  can  be  determined  only  when  its  purity 
and  viability  are  known.     It  is  the  product  of  the  purity 
multiplied  by  the  viability,  both  expressed  as  percentages. 
Thus,  if  the  purity  be  90  per  cent  and  the  viability  80 
per  cent,  the  actual  value  or  percentage  of  good  germinable 
seeds  is  90  times  80,  or  72  per  cent.     One  reason  why  rates 
of  seeding  recommended  by  different   authorities   vary 
so  widely  is  due  to  the  difference  in  the  actual  value  of 
the  seeds  used. 

61.  Superiority  of  local  seed.  —  Numerous  European 
experiments  with  grasses  and  clovers  show  as  a  rule  that 
locally  grown  seeds  give  superior  yields  to  those  brought 
from  a  distance.     In  the  United  States  this  phenomenon 
is  well  known  in  the  case  of  highly  bred  crops  like  corn, 
but  has  obtained  little  recognition  in  the  case  of  grasses 
and  clovers.     Results  with  these  crops  are  particularly 
instructive,  as  they  have  not  been  subject  to  artificial 
breeding,  and  hence  the  differences  they  show  may  fairly 
be  considered  due  to  natural  selection  or  local  adaptation. 
With  most  other  crops,  the  factor  of  difference  in  variety 
enters  the  problem. 

The  amount  of  evidence  on  this  subject  is  insufficient 
for  final  conclusions,  but  it  tends  to  uphold  the  generaliza- 


70  FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

tion  that  seeds  grown  locally  produce  superior  crops  to 
those  brought  from  a  distance.  Theoretically  this  has 
been  ascribed  to  adaptation  or  acclimatization,  usually 
with  the  idea  that  superiority  is  attained  by  the  elimina- 
tion more  or  less  gradually  of  the  inferior  individuals. 
Much  more  experimental  data  are  needed  on  this  subject, 
which  indeed  has  been  but  little  investigated  in  the  United 
States. 

62.  Standards  of  purity  and  germination.  —  Attempts 
have  been  made  to  establish  standards  of  purity  and 
germination  for  all  farm  seeds.  There  is,  however,  a  con- 
siderable variation  in  the  purity  of  many  forage  crop 
seeds,  depending  on  the  place  grown,  the  season  and  the 
care  exercised.  Furthermore,  it  is  not  so  much  the  amount 
of  the  impurity  as  the  character  of  it  which  is  most  im- 
portant. Thus,  alfalfa  seed  containing  1  per  cent  of 
dodder  seed  is  less  desirable  than  that  containing  no 
dodder  but  a  larger  percentage  of  other  weed  seeds.  A 
few  seeds  of  dangerous  weeds  like  Canada  thistle  are  far 
more  serious  than  many  seeds  of  ordinary  weeds. 

The  viability  of  seed  varies  not  only  with  its  age,  but 
with  the  care  in  handling,  and  with  the  season,  especially 
at  harvest  time.  In  some  seeds,  indeed,  the  viability 
is  less  when  fresh  than  when  one  year  old.  On  the  whole 
there  is  little  choice  between  100  pounds  of  forage  seed 
germinating  90  per  cent  and  120  pounds  germinating  75 
per  cent. 

While  fixed  standards  of  purity  and  germination  are 
scarcely  practicable,  it  is  well  to  know  what  degrees  of 
purity  and  germination  are  found  in  high  grade  com- 
mercial seed.  The  average  purity  and  germination  found 
in  the  trade  is  of  less  consequence,  as  this  is  influenced  by 
the  efficiency  of  legislation  and  inspection :  — 


SEEDS  AND   SEEDING 


71 


TABLE  SHOWING  PURITY  AND  GERMINATION  OF  FORAGE  SEEDS 
OF  HIGH  QUALITY 


NAME  OF  SEED 

PURITY 

GERMINATION 

Kentucky  blue-grass 

Per  cent 

75-85 

Per  cent 

70-85 

Timothy    

95-99 

95-99 

Orchard,  -grass 

90-98 

90-95 

Meadow  fescue 

95-99 

95-98 

Perennial  rye-grass       
Italian  rye-grass 

95 
95 

85-90 
80-85 

Brome-grass        
Redtop 

98-99 
95-98 

90-95 
95-98 

Tall  oat-grass      

80 

80 

Velvet-grass        
Meadow  foxtail 

70 
75 

70 
70 

Millets       
Red  clover 

99 
96-99 

95 
90-99 

White  clover       
Alsike  clover 

95-99 
96-99 

90-99 
90-99 

Alfalfa        

98-99 

90-99 

Sainfoin 

98 

75-80 

Crimson  clover 

99 

95-99 

Hairy  vetch   
Common  vetch 

98-99 
98-99 

95-98 
95-98 

63.  Adulteration  and  misbranding.  —  Seeds  are  not 
infrequently  adulterated  by  the  admixture  of  similar- 
looking  cheaper  seeds.  Whenever  such  inferior  seeds  are 
found  present  in  considerable  quantities,  it  may  reasonably 
be  considered  to  be  due  to  adulteration.  Sometimes  one 
kind  of  seed  is  sold  for  another  which  it  closely  re- 
sembles, as  trefoil  for  alfalfa,  or  Canada  blue-grass  for 
Kentucky  blue-grass.  Such  are  usually  willful  cases  of 
misbranding. 

Adulteration  and  misbranding  of  seeds  was  formerly 
much  more  common,  but  the  practice  is  by  no  means 


72  FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 

obsolete.  At  one  time  in  Europe  particles  of  quartz 
were  prepared  and  colored  especially  to  adulterate 
clover  seed.  In  England  there  was  a  regular  business  in 
the  collecting  and  killing  of  weed  seeds  to  be  used  as 
adulterants. 

Among  the  seeds  that  are  still  often  adulterated  are  red 
clover,  alfalfa,  alsike,  Kentucky  blue-grass,  orchard-grass, 
redtop,  meadow  fescue  and  brome-grass. 

64.  Color   and   plumpness   of   seeds.  —  Depending  on 
the  conditions  under  which  it  was  grown,  there  is  much 
difference  in  seeds  as  to  brightness  of  color  and  degree  of 
plumpness. 

Shriveled  seeds  make  weak  seedlings,  but  no  field  experi- 
ments where  shriveled  were  compared  with  plump  seeds 
seem  to  be  recorded. 

Discolored  seed  is  evidence  that  the  seed  is  old,  or  has 
been  badly  stored,  or  more  usually  that  it  was  harvested 
under  unfavorable  conditions. 

65.  Age  of  seed.  —  Seeds  vary  greatly  in  the  length 
of  time  they  will  retain  their  germinating  power.     In  gen- 
eral, the  seeds  of  legumes  are  much  longer  lived  than  those 
of  grasses.     Old  seeds  make  weaker  seedlings  than  fresh 
seeds,  and  this  probably  has  its  effect  on  the  resultant  yield. 

In  red  clover  and  other  legumes  the  germination  of 
fresh  seeds  is  usually  less  than  that  of  seeds  one  year  old, 
owing  to  the  presence  of  "  hard  "  seeds.  (§  71.)  • 

Cowpea  seeds,  at  least  some  varieties,  also  refuse  to 
germinate  when  fresh  unless  the  testa  is  broken  or  scratched 
with  sand.  Apparently  there  is  a  waterproof  coating 
that  for  a  time  prevents  the  absorption  of  water. 

The  results  obtained  during  many  years  at  the  Zurich, 
Switzerland,  Sqed  Control  Station,  show  that  few  forage 
seeds  are  worth  planting  when  three  years  old. 


SEEDS  AND   SEEDING 


73 


If,  however,  seeds  be  stored  in  small  quantities  under 
very  favorable  conditions,  the  viability  i§  retained  much 
longer  than  in  seed  warehouses.  Thus  Samek  secured 
the  following  results  :  — 

VIABILITY  OF  VARIOUS  FORAGE  SEEDS  STORED  IN   PAPER  BAGS 
IN  A  DRY  AIRY  ROOM  DURING  11  YEARS. — J.  SAMEK 


PERCENTAGE  OP  VITALITY 

KIND  OF  SEED 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

"10 

11 

yr. 

yr. 

yr. 

yr. 

yr. 

yr. 

yr. 

yr. 

yr. 

yr. 

yr. 

Red  clover 

90 

90 

88 

84 

74 

68 

44 

16 

10 

3 

2 

White  clover     .     . 

74 

72 

63 

52 

50 

50 

35 

31 

26 

23 

22 

Alsike  clover     . 

73 

64 

51 

37 

15 

7 

6 

5 

3 

3 

3 

Sainfoin        .     .     . 

92 

92 

78 

61 

54 

52 

19 

18 

13 

9 

* 

Serradella    .     .     . 

36 

32 

33 

22 

14 

11 

9 

6 

2 

0 

0 

Alfalfa     .... 

94 

91 

87 

75 

72 

71 

68 

66 

63 

59 

54 

Tall  oat-grass'  .     . 

70 

66 

59 

43 

24 

12 

10 

2 

1 

0 

0 

Italian  rye-grass    . 

67 

62 

61 

55 

43 

39 

29 

15 

8 

4 

1 

English  rye-grass 

72 

70 

66 

60 

42 

28 

22 

9 

5 

1 

0 

Tall  fescue        .     . 

83 

80 

72 

68 

48 

42 

35 

18 

9 

1 

0 

Sweet  vernal-grass 

70 

62 

57 

46 

43 

37 

31 

13 

9 

8 

4 

Meadow  foxtail     . 

13 

11 

9 

7 

7 

5 

3 

1 

1 

0 

0 

Timothy       .     .     . 

95 

90 

90 

88 

86 

79 

66 

39 

15 

1 

0 

Orchard-grass  .     . 

46 

47 

44 

44 

39 

29 

21 

12 

8 

5 

* 

Blue-grass    .     .     . 

28 

17 

17 

17 

16 

11 

8 

5 

2 

0 

0 

Crested  dogstail    . 

46 

39 

33 

29 

20 

12 

6 

3 

2 

1 

0 

Florin      .... 

66 

61 

46 

43 

37 

35 

34 

31 

22 

20 

* 

Sheep  fescue 

68 

67 

68 

42 

21 

18 

10 

4 

3 

0 

0 

Hair-grass    .     .     . 

37 

27 

21 

17 

7 

3 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

Spurry     .... 

85 

70 

68 

59 

46 

42 

37 

25 

21 

8 

2 

*  No  seeds  for  examination,  all  having  been  used  up  in  previous  years. 

66.  Source  of  seeds.  —  The  place  in  which  seed  is 
grown  may  have  an  important  effect  upon  the  resulting 
plant.  This  is  particularly  true  in  the  case  of  highly 
bred  plants  like  corn,  but  it  is  also  true  of  crops  which 


74     FORAGE  PLANTS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE 

have  never  been  improved  by  artificial  selection.  As  a 
general  rule,  locally  grown  seed  is  likely  to  be  most  satis- 
factory, but  this  is  by  no  means  always  the  case.  The 
reasons  for  this  phenomenon  are  not  clear,  but  it  is  com- 
monly believed  that  all  plants  become  better  adapted  to 
the  conditions  of  culture,  or  the  climate  and  soil  of  the 
region  in  which  they  are  grown  a  long  time,  by  the  gradual 
elimination  of  such  individuals  as  do  not  thrive. 

In  North  America  the  seeds  of  most  forage  crops  are 
grown  in  the  same  general  region  in  which  they  are  cul- 
tivated, but  the  exceptions  occur  to  this  in  case  of  alfalfa, 
vetches  and  many  grasses  of  minor  importance.  In 
Europe,  on  the  contrary,  there  is  a  relatively  much  greater 
importation  of  grass  and  legume  seeds  from  foreign  sources, 
so  that  much  experimentation  has  been  devoted  to  deter- 
mining their  relative  crop-bearing  capacities. 

It  is  usually  possible  to  determine  the  origin  of  any  lot 
of  forage  crop  seed  by  the  presence  of  characteristic  weed 
seeds.  Thus,  if  orchard-grass  is  found  to  contain  seeds 
of  Lepidium  virginicum,  Panicum  dichotomum  or  Carex 
cephalophora,  it  certainly  was  grown  in  North  America; 
if  it  contains  Danthonia  pilosa,  Danthonia  semiannularis, 
Sporobolus  indicus,  Hypochceris  radicata  and  others,  it  in- 
dicates New  Zealand  origin.  If  alfalfa  seed  contains  that 
of  Grindelia  squarrosa,  it  is  probably  from  the  western 
United  States ;  while  Argemone  alba  indicates  an  Argen- 
tine origin,  and  Centaurea  picris  that  it  is  from  Turkestan. 

67.  Seed  inspection.  —  In  recent  times  the  adulteration 
and  misbranding  of  seeds  is  becoming  less  common,  mainly 
due  to  legislation  and  the  official  examination  of  seeds  at 
special  central  stations  or  laboratories.  The  first  of 
these  was  established  in  1867  at  Tharand,  Saxony,  by 
Nobbe.  At  the  present  time  such  stations  are  supported 


SEEDS   AND    SEEDING  75 

by  nearly  all  of  the  countries  of  Europe,  there  being  over 
40  in  Germany  alone. 

The  first  work  of  this  sort  in  America  was  inaugurated 
by  Jenkins  at  the  Connecticut  Experiment  Station 
in  1877,  The  Seed  Laboratory  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  was  established  in  1894, 
and  similar  work  has  been  carried  on  by  the  Canada 
Department  of  Agriculture  since  1903. 

At  the  present  time  there  are  legislative  provisions  in 
many  states  for  preventing  the  adulteration  and  mis- 
branding  of  seeds. 

68.  Sampling.  —  To  secure  a  fair  sample  from  a  bag 
of  seed  a  small  amount  should  be  taken  from  different 
parts  of  the  bag,  including  the  top  and  the  bottom.     There 
is  a  tendency  for  the  smaller  and  heavier  seeds  to  rattle 
to*  the  bottom  in  handling,  and  for  the  lighter  and  larger 
seeds .  to  rise  toward  the  top.     By  mixing  the  smaller 
samples  thus  contained,  a  fair  sample  of  the  contents  of 
the  bag  is  obtained. 

69.  Guaranteed  seeds.  —  The  practice  of  guaranteeing 
the  purity  and  germination  of  seeds  has  been  adopted 
by  several  firms,  and  is  likely  to  become  more  general. 
This  is  the  fairest  and  most  satisfactory  method  for  the 
buyer.     In  lieu  of  guarantees,  large  users  of  field  seeds 
frequently  purchase  on  the  basis  that  the  delivery  shall 
be  equal  in  quality  to  a  sample  previously  submitted. 
No  matter  how  stringent  future  control  laws  may  become, 
seeds  will  continue  to  vary  in  quality.     In  a  perfectly 
fair  transaction  both  the  buyer  and  the  seller  should  know 
the  quality  of  the  goods. 

70.  Fungous  diseases.  —  A  few  grasses  are  more  or  less 
subject  to  the  attacks  of  smut  fungi  that  infect  the  ovary, 
which,  when  ripe,  is  converted  into  a  mass  of  black  spores. 


76  FORAGE  PLANTS   AND    THEIR   CULTURE 

In  thrashing,  these  spores  are  scattered  over  the  seeds, 
and  thus  the  young  plants  become  infected.  Among  the 
forage  grasses  thus  subject  to  smut  are  the  sorghums  and 
tall  oat-grass.  Treating  the  seeds  by  various  different 
methods  will  destroy  the  spores  or  prevent  them  from 
germinating  in  time  to  infect  the  young  seedlings.  Such 
methods  are  commonly  used  to  prevent  smut  in  such 
grain  crops  as  wheat,  oats  and  sorghum,  and  probably 
would  be  found  efficient  in  such  forage  grasses  as  may  be 
similarly  affected. 

71.  Hard  seeds.  —  In  many  legumes  some  of  the  seeds 
will  not  absorb  water  and  germinate  but  remain  hard. 
The  percentage  of  hard  seeds  varies  with  the  seasonal  or 
other  conditions  under  which  it  was  grown.  In  the  same 
lot  of  seed  the  percentage  of  hard  seed  will  gradually 
diminish  with  age.  Owing  to  the  presence  of  such  seeds, 
red  clover  often  shows  a  higher  percentage  of  viability 
when  one  year  old  than  when  fresh. 

American  seed  laboratories  usually  state  the  percentage 
of  hard  seeds  present  in  a  sample.  In  Europe  the  practice 
has  been  to  consider  a  certain  per  cent  of  the  hard  seed 
to  be  viable;  namely,  that  which  it  is  believed  will  ger- 
minate in  the  soil  under  favorable  conditions. 

The  actual  value  of  hard  seed  when  sown  in  the  field 
needs  to  be  determined  for  each  species.  It  is  certain 
that  some  of  it  remains  unsprouted  in  the  ground  at  least 
a  year. 

Duvel  buried  "  hard  "  seeds  of  red  clover  in  porous 
earthenware  pots  at  depths  of  6-8,  18-22  and  36-42 
inches.  At  the  end  of  11  months  the  seeds  germinated 
respectively  10.5,  15.5  and  14.5  per  cent.  The  hard  seed 
was  selected  by  soaking  seeds  one  year  old  in  water  for 
18  hours  and  then  for  20  hours,  saving  only  those  that 


SEEDS   AND   SEEDING 


77 


FIG.  6.  —  Noxious  weed  seeds  found  in  farm  seeds  (No.  1)  :  a,  Sand 
bur ;  b,  wild  oat ;  c,  chess ;  d,  darnel ;  e,  quack-grass  ;  f,  dock ;  g,  black 
bindweed  ;  h,  Russian  thistle  ;  i,  corn  cockle  ;  j,  white  campion  ;  k,  blad- 
der campion;  1,  night-flowering  catchfly;  m,  cow  cockle;  n,  pennycress ; 
o,  field  peppergrass  ;  p,  large-fruited  false  flax  ;  q,  small-fruited  false  flax ; 
r,  ball  mustard  ;  s,  black  mustard ;  t,  English  charlock. 


78  FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 

remained  hard,  which  was  51.5  per  cent  of  the  whole. 
In  another  series  of  samples  from  this  lot,  the  percentages 
which  germinated  after  11  months  were  respectively  4.5, 
5  and  6  per  cent  for  the  different  depths. 

If  hard  seed  be  scratched  so  that  water  can  be  absorbed 
by  the  embryo,  prompt  germination  results.  Recently 
machines  have  been  devised  for  this  purpose,  but  as  their 
capacity  is  small,  they  have  been  used  only  in  experimental 
work. 

Another  method  of  making  hard  seed  viable  is  to  soak 
the  seed  in  commercial  sulfuric  acid  1  for  thirty  minutes, 
and  then  wash  with  water  to  remove  the  acid.  Run- 
ning water  should  be  used,  if  possible,  as  the  mixing  of  the 
acid  with  water  engenders  much  heat,  and  if  only  a  small 
proportion  of  water  is  used,  the  seeds  may  be  injured  by 
the  heat.  The  seed,  after  washing,  should  be  spread  out 
to  dry.  The  acid  corrodes  the  seed  coat  sufficiently  so 
that  it  no  longer  is  impervious  to  water. 

72.  Most  dangerous  weed  seeds.  —  The  percentage  of 
weed  seeds  present  as  impurities,  unless  very  large,  is  of 
less  concern  than  the  presence  of  really  dangerous  weeds, 
even  if  in  very  small  amount.     Among  the  most  dan- 
gerous weed  seeds  are  the   dodders,  which   occur  in  red 
clover,  alfalfa,  lespedeza  and  rarely  in  other  forage  seeds ; 
Canada  thistle,  which  is  not  infrequent  in  many  sorts  of 
seeds ;    and  quack-grass,  which  may  be  present  in  other 
grass  seeds.      In  cases  where  these  weeds  cannot  be  re- 
moved by  recleaning,  it  is  usually  not  advisable  to  plant 
the  seeds. 

73.  Weight   of   seeds.  —  The  weight  of  seeds  to  the 
bushel  varies  considerably  with  the  same  species,  depending 

1  Cornell  Agr.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  No.  312. 


SEEDS   AND   SEEDING 


79 


FIG.  7.  —  Noxious  weed  seeds  found  in  farm  seeds  (No.  2)  :  a,  Indian 
mustard  ;  b,  hare's-ear  mustard  ;  c,  tumbling  mustard  ;  d,  wild  carrot ; 
e,  field  bindweed ;  f ,  flax  dodder ;  g,  clover  dodder ;  h,  small-seeded 
alfalfa  dodder ;  i,  field  dodder ;  j,  large-seeded  alfalfa  dodder  ;  k,  corn 
gromwell ;  1,  rat-tail  plantain  ;  m,  buckhorn  ;  n,  ragweed  ;  o,  gumweed  ; 
p,  wild  sunflower ;  q,  oxeye-daisy ;  r,  Canada  thistle ;  s,  bull  thistle ; 
t,  wild  chicory. 


80  FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

on  the  conditions  of  the  season  or  of  the  locality  in  which 
the  seed  was  grown,  and  with  the  amount  of  chaff  or  other 
impurities  which  it  may  contain.  In  most  states  a  legal 
weight  to  the  bushel  has  been  established  for  each  im- 
portant kind  of  seed. 

The  influence  of  weight  of  seed  upon  resultant  yields 
is  still  an  open  question.  With  cereals  where  the  same 
volume  of  heavy,  light  and  unseparated  seeds  have  been 
sown,  the  resulting  differences  obtained  have  usually  been 
too  small  to  be  significant. 

Few  experiments  of  this  sort  have  been  carried  out  with 
grasses  or  clovers.  Hunt  secured  better  yields  of  timothy 
at  the  Cornell  Experiment  Station  with  heavy  seed,  both 
when  the  same  weight  and  the  same  number  of  seeds  were 
sown.  At  the  Utah  Experiment  Station  heavy  and  light 
timothy  seeds  were  separated  by  means  of  a  salt  solution, 
but  no  difference  was  obtained  in  the  yield  of  plots 
planted  to  each. 

74.  Number  of  seeds  in  one  pound.  — •  The  number  of 
seeds  in  one  pound  of  different  kinds  of  field  seeds  has  been 
determined  by  several  investigators.  The  figures  of  dif- 
ferent authorities  often  show  wide  variation  for  the  same 
kind  of  seed.  This  may  be  due  in  part  to  the  quality  of 
the  seed  used,  as  the  weight  of  a  bushel  from  different 
sources  or  in  different  seasons  may  vary  greatly.  The 
subject  is  not  one  of  much  agronomic  value,  and  mainly 
on  this  account  has  received  but  little  attention.  In  some 
crops  like  the  cowpea,  soybean  and  field  pea,  the  size  of 
the  seeds  and  the  number  in  a  pound  vary  greatly  accord- 
ing to  variety.  In  this  case  it  is  often  preferable  to  use 
the  small-seeded  varieties  for  forage  production,  as  less 
seed  is  required  to  the  acre,  and  the  price  of  the  small- 
seeded  sorts  is  usually  just  as  cheap. 


SEEDS  AND   SEEDING 


81 


TABLE  SHOWING  WEIGHTS  OF  SEED  IN  A  BUSHEL 


NAME  OP  SEED 

LEGAL 
WEIGHT 

MOST 

COMMONLY 
ADOPTED 

EXTREMES 
IN  LEGAL 
WEIGHTS 
ADOPTED 

AVERAGE 
WEIGHT 
OF  ONE 
BUSHEL 

EXTREME 
WEIGHTS 
OF  ONE 
BUSHEL 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Alfalfa       

60 

63 

Red  clover 

60 

64 

Alsike  clover      

60 

66 

White  clover      

60 

63 

Crimson  clover        .... 

60 

Kidney  vetch     

60-64 

Hairy  vetch        

60 

60 

Common  vetch       .... 

60 

60 

Yellow  trefoil     

64-66 

Bird's  foot  trefoil    .... 

60 

Field  peas      

60 

52-68 

Cowpeas 

60 

Soybeans 

60 

Velvet  beans      

60 

Timothy 

45 

42-60 

50 

Orchard-grass 

14 

14 

12—22 

Redtop      

14 

12-14 

14 

12-40 

Kentucky  blue-grass  .     .     . 

14 

18 

6-28 

Canada  blue-grass  .... 

14-24 

Meadow  fescue  

20-30 

Smooth  brome   

13 

12-20 

Bermuda        

35-36 

Tall  oat-grass     

10 

10-16 

Perennial  rye-grass      .     .     . 

20 

10-30 

Italian  rye-grass     .... 

20 

16 

12-24 

Creeping  bent    

16 

8-32 

Foxtail  millet     

48-50 

48-50 

40-55 

Sorghum        

56 

30-57 

Johnson-grass     

28 

25-28 

Yellow  oat-grass     .... 

5 

12-14 

Meadow  foxtail       .... 

6-8 

12-14 

Velvet-grass        

7 

61 

6-7 

Reed  canary-grass  .... 

44-48 

Sheep's  fescue    

12 

10-30 

Red  fescue     

13 

10-15 

Erect  brome       .     .    *.     .     . 

14-15 

Crested  dogstail      .... 

26 

20-38 

Sweet  vernal       

16 

82 


FORAGE  PLANTS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE 


TABLE  SHOWING  NUMBER  OF  SEEDS  IN  ONE  POUND  OF  VARIOUS 
FORAGE  CROPS 


NAME  OP  PLANI 

AUTHORITY 

Stebler  & 
Schroter 

Werner 

Hunter 

Hunt 

Misc. 

Alfalfa       .... 

/  182,000 
\  237,000 

178,000 

224,000 

f  200,000 
\  240,000 

Red  clover     .     .     . 

279,000 

258,000 

232,000 

f  200,000 
\  550,000 

Alsike  clover 

707,000 

643,000 

718,000 

700,000 

White  clover       .     . 

740,000 

682,000 

732,000 

800,000 

Crimson  clover 

121,000 

118,000 

f  125,000 
\  150,000 

Kidney  vetch     .     . 

/  126,000 
(  182,000 

176,000 

193,000 

Yellow  trefoil     .     . 

270,000 

319,000 

325,000 

Sainfoin     .... 

22,500 

22,300 

22,500 

Bird's  foot  trefoil    . 

375,000 

313,000 

412,000 

Cowpea     .... 

f    75,000 
\  250,000 

Burnet       .... 

54,000 

Chicory     .... 

325,000 

Yarrow      .... 

3,510,000 

Goat's  rue      . 

62,000 

Timothy    .... 

1,170,500 

948,000 

1,320,000 

Redtop      .... 

603,000 

4,000,000 

7,800,000 

{4,135,900 

111.  Exp.  Sta. 

6,400,000 

N.  C,  Exp.  Sta. 

Creeping  bent    . 

8,000,000 

Orchard-grass     . 

579,500 

400,000 

426,000 

f  400,000 
1  480,000 

Kentucky  blue-grass 

2,400,000 

2,400,000 

1,860,000 

3,888,000 

2,185,000 

111.  Exp.  Sta. 

Meadow  foxtail 

907,000 

465,000 

490,000 

1,216,000 

Italian  rye-grass      . 

285,000 

260,000 

270,000 

285,000 

Perennial  rye-grass 

336,800 

223,000 

223,000 

336,000 

Meadow  fescue 

/  318,200 
\  226,400 

240,000 

236,000 

300,000 

Tall  fescue     .     .     . 

246,000 

Sheep's  fescue     . 

680,000 

923,000 

Hard  fescue         .     . 

578,000 

Fine-leaved  fescue 

1,056,000 

1,561,000 

Tall  oat-grass     . 

159,000 

147,000 

138,000 

159,000 

Wood  meadow-grass 

2,000,000 

2,325,000 

Rough-stalked 
meadow-grass 

f  2,500,000 
\  4,000,000 

2,000,000 

2,235,000 

Sweet  vernal       .     . 

924,000 

760,000 

738,000 

924,000 

Yellow  oat-grass 

2,045,000 

1,175,000 

1,400,000 

Crested  dogstail 

1,127,000 

678,000 

886,000 

Velvet-grass        .     . 

1,301,000 

1,195,000 

1,304,000 

Reed  canary       .     . 

060,000 

577,000 

660,000 

Various-leaved 

f  350,000 

fescue    .... 

1  545,000 

Red  fescue     .     .     . 

f  364,000 
1  820,000 

400,000 

Erect  brome       .     . 

114,000 

127,000 

Brome        .... 

137,000 

Bermuda-grass  .     . 

1,800,000 

Foxtail  millet     .     . 

240,000 

f  175,000 
I  250,000 

SEEDS  AND   SEEDING  83 

75.  Seed   production   of   forage   crops,    United    States, 
1909.  —  The  census  statistics  for  the  production  of  grass 
seeds   including  grasses,    clovers,   millet   and   alfalfa   are 
given  only  in  production,  as  the  acreage  is  wholly  or  mainly 
included  under  hay  and  forage.     In  the  case  of  peas  and 
beans,  however,  the  acreage  and  production  are  both  given, 
though  much  of  the  field  peas,  cowpeas  and  sorghums  are 
cut  for  hay. 

"  Grass  seed,"  including  timothy,  clovers,  millet  and 
alfalfa,  is  most  largely  produced  by  the  following  states, 
the  numbers  referring  to  acres  harvested:  Illinois,  1,289,- 
996;  Iowa,  1,118,044;  Minnesota,  945,666;  Kentucky, 
612,406;  South  Dakota,  424,623;  Kansas,  324,321; 
Ohio,  288,605;  Missouri,  257,872;  Indiana,  165,488; 
Michigan,  151,567;  Oregon,  151,016. 

Field  pea  seed  is  mostly  produced  in  Michigan  and 
Wisconsin,  but  much  more  is  grown  in  Canada. 

Cowpea  seed  is  produced  in  all  the  Southern  States, 
especially  Georgia,  North  Carolina  and  South  Carolina. 

Sorghum  seed  is  produced  most  largely  by  Kansas, 
followed  by  Nebraska,  Texas  and  Oklahoma. 

76.  Seeding   in    practice.  —  In    actual    practice    three 
systems   of   sowing   grass   seeds   may   be   distinguished; 
namely  :  (1)  seeding  on  especially  prepared  land ;  (2)  seed- 
ing  with   another   broadcasted   or   drilled   crop,    usually 
a  small  grain  either  simultaneously  or  in  some  cases  in 
spring  on  fall-sown  grain ;  and  (3)  seeding  in  the  rows  of 
a  cultivated  crop.     In  some  regions,  all  three  of  these 
systems  prevail.     The  first  system  unquestionably  gives 
the  best  results  as  regards  the  grass  crop,  but  requires 
additional  labor  in  preparing  the  land.     Where  difficulty 
is  experienced  in  securing  a  good  stand  of  grass,  or  where 
perennial   weeds    are   troublesome,    this   method   should 


84  FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 

always  be  employed.  The  second  system  is  the  common 
one  employed  in  the  sowing  of  timothy  and  clover,  as  well 
as  other  mixtures,  the  "  nurse  "  crop  being  some  small 
grain.  Most  commonly  the  timothy  is  sown  with  fall 
wheat  and  the  clover  is  broadcasted  over  the  field  in  early 
spring  as  soon  as  the  frost  is  out  of  the  ground.  In  the 
northernmost  states  and  in  Canada,  the  grass  seeds  are 
sown  with  a  spring  crop  of  small  grain. 

The  "  nurse  crop  "  system  has  the  advantage  of  economy 
of  labor.  In  fertile  farm  lands,  especially  in  the  north, 
it  is  as  a  rule  very  satisfactory.  It  needs  to  be  clearly 
recognized  that  the  grasses  succeed  not  by  the  help  of, 
but  in  spite  of,  the  "  nurse  crop."  After  the  grain  is 
harvested,  the  slender  grass  plants  which  have  developed 
in  the  shade  of  the  cereal  are  then  subjected  to  the  heat 
of  midsummer,  and  sometimes  to  drought  as  well.  This 
often  results  in  damage  to  the  grass,  more  serious  as  a  rule 
to  spring-sown  than  to  fall-sown. 

The  third  system,  —  namely,  sowing  the  grass  seed  in 
between  the  rows  of  a  cultivated  crop,  —  is  not  widely 
employed.  Crimson  clover  is,  however,  very  commonly 
sown  in  corn  at  the  time  of  the  last  cultivation,  and  this 
same  method  has  been  used  successfully  with  red  clover, 
alfalfa  and  with  mixed  grasses.  It  has  all  the  advantages 
of  a  small  cereal  nurse  crop  without  certain  disadvantages. 
The  young  grass  thrives  better  because  it  is  less  crowded 
and  less  shaded,  and  practically  no  injury  can  accrue  from 
lodging.  In  rotation  systems,  however,  it  is  desirable  to 
follow  grass  with  a  cultivated  crop,  and  this  is  usually 
corn.  For  this  reason,  small  grain  crops  necessarily 
follow  corn,  if  employed  in  the  rotation,  as  is  usually  the 
case.  It  is  mainly  due  to  the  requirements  of  rotation 
systems  that  grasses  are  so  seldom  sown  in  cultivated 
crops. 


SEEDS   AND   SEEDING  86 

77.  Rate  of  seeding.  —  In  the  accompanying  table  is 
given  the  ordinary  rate  of  seeding  broadcasted  forage 
crops,  with  calculations  showing  the  number  of  seeds 
sown  on  each  square  foot.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the 
number  is  large  and  that  it  varies  greatly  with  different 
plants.  Were  such  plants  allowed  to  develop  undis- 
turbed by  weeds,  only  a  small  portion  of  the  seed  would 
be  required  to  give  a  satisfactory  stand.  It  is  difficult 
to  determine  what  constitutes  a  perfect  stand,  but  the 
numbers  given  are  based  on  the  room  necessary  for  the 
full  development  of  a  young  plant. 

The  rates  of  seeding  ordinarily  used  are  purely  empirical 
-  the  result  of  experience  or  of  experimental  field  trials. 
The  effect  of  the  heavy  seeding  is  to  secure  a  dense  stand 
of  young  plants,  which  in  a  measure  restrains  weeds, 
and  which  further  insures  that  in  competition  with  the 
weeds  a  majority  of  the  survivors  will  be  the  plant  desired. 
This  dense  stand  is  especially  necessary  in  perennial 
grasses  where  the  seedlings  are  slender  and  in  their  early 
stages  grow  but  slowly,  and  thus  are  relatively  inefficient 
against  broad-leaved,  vigorous  weeds. 

It  is  scarcely  possible  to  seed  perennial  grasses  and 
clovers  so  heavily  that  the  resultant  yield  is  seriously 
affected.  With  annuals,  however,  too  dense  seeding 
reduces  the  size  of  the  individuals  so  much  that  the  yield 
to  the  acre  is  also  diminished. 

In  general  the  rate  of  seeding  is  least  in  regions  where 
the  crop  is  best  adapted ;  that  is,  where  the  individual 
plants  are  most  vigorous  and  the  natural  mortality  there- 
fore least.  The  weediness  of  the  soil  is  also  an  important 
factor. 

Where  seed  can  be  drilled  the  amount  necessary  to 
secure  a  good  stand  is  about  25  per  cent  less  than  when 


86 


FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 


broadcasted.  The  reasons  are  evident ;  namely,  the  cover- 
ing of  the  seed  uniformly  to  the  most  favorable  depths  as 
well  as  its  more  even  distribution  :  — 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  GENERAL  RELATIONS  BETWEEN  NUMBER 
OF  SEEDS  SOWN  AND  FINAL  STAND 


AVERAGE 

AVERAGE 

RATE  OF 

NUMBER  OF 

NUMBER  OF 

SEEDING 

NUMBER  OF 

SEEDS 

PLANTS  TO 

NAME  OF  PLANT 

TO  THE 

SEEDS  TO 

TO   THE 

THE  SQUARE 

ACRE 

THE  POUND 

SQUARE 

FOOT  FOR  A 

FOOT 

PERFECT 

POUNDS 

STAND 

Red  clover       .... 

8 

250,000 

47 

15 

Crimson  clover    .     .     . 

15 

130,000 

45 

15 

Alsike  clover 

8 

700,000 

130 

15 

Alfalfa 

20 

200,000 

93 

15 

Sweet  clover    .... 

25 

235^000 

140 

7 

Timothy     

15 

1,100,000 

350 

90 

Kentucky  blue-grass     . 

25 

2,400,000 

1400 

130 

Orchard-grass 

20 

4,500,000 

210 

90 

Brome-grass    .... 

20 

137,000 

65 

90 

Redtop        

10 

4,000,000 

930 

140 

Meadow  fescue    .     .     . 

20 

250,000 

115 

90 

Italian  rye-grass       .     . 

30 

270,000 

215 

90 

Perennial  rye-grass  . 

30 

270,000 

215 

90 

Tall  oat-grass  .... 

40 

150,000 

140 

90 

78.  Time  of  seeding.  —  There  are  certain  general 
principles  involved  in  determining  the  best  time  to  seed 
any  particular  forage  crop.  These  principles  refer  partly 
to  the  climate,  but  more  to  the  inherent  habits  of  the  crop 
in  question,  since  these  determine  almost  absolutely  the 
time  when  the  seed  must  be  sown.  The  principles  in- 
volved will  be  more  clear  by  classifying  forage  crops  into 
summer  annuals,  winter  annuals,  biennials  and  perennials. 

Summer  annuals  include  such  forage  crop  as  millets, 


SEEDS  AND   SEEDING  87 

sorghums  and  cowpeas,  which  like  maize  require  a  con- 
tinuous, rather  high  temperature  for  their  best  develop- 
ment. They  are  all  plants  of  tropical  origin  carried  by 
agriculture  into  temperate  regions.  All  are  characterized 
by  rather  rapid  and  uniform  growth  from  germination 
to  maturity.  At  their  northern  limits  they  succeed  best 
if  planting  is  delayed  until  the  latest  time  which  safely 
permits  of  their  maturing,  as  their  growth  is  seriously 
checked  by  cool  weather.  Where  the  season  is  longer 
plantings  may  be  timed  according  to  weather  and  soil 
conditions ;  or  better,  late  varieties  which  can  utilize 
the  longer  season  may  be  grown.  A  few  summer  annuals 
like  the  soybean  will  withstand  cool  weather,  even  light 
frosts,  both  in  spring  and  fall,  but  most  of  them  are  in- 
tolerant of  cold. 

Winter  annuals  include  wheat,  rye,  oats,  barley,  Canada 
peas,  common  vetch,  crimson  clover  and  others.  Natu- 
rally, they  are  plants  which  germinate  in  the  fall  and 
mature  in  spring  or  summer  in  regions  of  mild,  often 
frostless,  winters.  They  differ  from  summer  annuals  in 
being  intolerant  of  high  temperatures  during  growth, 
and  in  undergoing  more  or  less  dormancy  during  winter. 
Where  the  winters  are  too  severe  they  must  be  planted  in 
spring,  but  in  such  cases  often  suffer  from  summer  heat, 
as  commonly  occurs  with  Canada  peas  and  common 
vetch.  Where  both  fall  and  spring  sowings  are  possible, 
as  wheat  in  some  regions,  the  former  usually  produce 
better  crops,  owing  partly  to  better  root  development, 
and  partly  to  the  longer  growing  season  in  spring  which 
fall  planting  insures.  To  a  slight  degree  winter  annuals 
show  a  dual  period  of  development  like  biennials. 

Biennial  plants  like  the  carrot,  beet  and  rutabagas 
are  especially  instructive,  in  that  their  development 


88  FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

during  the  two  seasons  is  in  sharp  contrast.  Ordinarily 
they  are  planted  in  spring.  The  first  season  they  produce 
above  ground  only  a  rosette  of  leaves,  but  below  ground 
a  great  root  development.  During  the  second  season 
there  is  a  large  growth  of  flowering  stems,  in  part  due  to 
the  stored  food  in  the  roots.  The  growth  of  the  first 
season  constitutes  the  crop,  unless  seed  is  the  object, 
but  the  amount  of  herbage  above  ground  is  far  greater 
the  second  season.  This  sharp  contrast  between  the  growth 
of  the  two  seasons  occurs  regardless  of  whether  the  seed  is 
sown  in  the  spring  or  in  the  fall  so  long  as  the  plants  survive 
the  winter. 

Herbaceous  perennials  are  much  like  biennials  in  that 
the  first  season  is  devoted  mainly  to  root  development. 
The  rosette  habit  is  not  so  conspicuous,  and  with  many 
species  a  few  flowering  shoots  are  produced  if  the  seed  is 
sown  in  spring.  The  second  season,  abundant  top  growth 
is  produced,  and  this  is  regardless  of  whether  the  seed  was 
sown  in  the  spring  or  fall,  as  it  is  only  during  the  first 
season  that  the  rosette  habit  predominates.  There  is 
seldom  any  gain  by  sowing  a  perennial  grass  or  legume  in 
spring,  as  the  yield  during  that  season  is  usually  negligible 
and  the  crop  must  compete  with  numerous  summer  weeds 
during  the  period  when  it  produces  but  little  top  growth. 
It  is  a  safe  general  rule,  therefore,  that  perennials  should 
be  sown  in  the  fall,  but  early  enough  that  good  root  growth 
be  established  by  winter.  Spring  seeding  of  such  crops 
is  desirable  only  where  moisture  conditions  compel  it 
or  winter  injury  by  cold  is  likely  to  be  excessive. 

79.  Depth  of  planting.  —  The  depth  to  which  seeds  of 
a  particular  species  should  be  planted  cannot  be  stated 
arbitrarily  nor  based  on  any  definite  theory.  Under 
natural  conditions  seeds  fall  on  the  surface  of  the  ground 


SEEDS  AND    SEEDING  89 

and  most  of  them  germinate  on  or  very  near  the  surface. 
The  percentage  of  mortality  of  such  seeds  is,  however, 
very  high,  much  greater  than  it  is  necessary  to  provide 
against  in  agriculture. 

The  principal  objects  desired  are  to  plant  the  seed 
deeply  enough  to  germinate  under  average  climatic  con- 
ditions at  the  place,  and  not  too  deeply,  to  prevent  the 
seedlings  from  reaching  the  surface. 

In  general,  small  seeds  must  be  planted  shallow  and 
large  seeds  may  be  planted  deep.  Some  large  seeds,  like 
peas,  may  be  planted  as  deep  as  8  inches,  but  this  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  young  shoot  does  not  carry  the  cotyle- 
dons with  it.  In  the  case  of  equally  large  bean  seeds, 
where  the  cotyledons  are  raised  out  of  the  ground,  such 
deep  planting  would  be  fatal. 

In  sandy  soils  planting  may  be  twice  as  deep  as  in 
clay  soils,  both  to  secure  the  necessary  moisture,  and 
because  such  soils  offer  less  resistance  to  the  developing 
seedling. 

80.  Experimental  results.  —  The  best  method  of  sowing 
any  hay  crop  in  any  particular  place  can  be  determined 
only  by  direct  trials.  This  involves  experiments  in  rate 
of  seeding,  depth  of  planting,  time  of  sowing,  use  of  nurse 
crop,  etc.  The  best  method  depends  quite  as  much  on 
the  adaptations  of  the  plant  itself  as  upon  local  con- 
ditions. Thus,  some  grasses  and  legumes  do  not  well 
endure  shade,  consequently  the  seeding  of  these  with  a 
nurse  crop  is  inadvisable. 

The  following  experiments  conducted  at  the  Ontario 
Agricultural  College  illustrate  how  greatly  different 
methods  of  seeding  may  affect  the  yield  of  the  same  and 
of  different  species  of  grasses  and  clovers. 

Two  distinct  experiments  were  performed,  one  from  the 


90 


FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 


autumn  of  1896  and  the  spring  of  1897  to  the  autumn  oi 
1898 ;  the  other  from  the  autumn  of  1899  and  the  spring 
of  1900  to  the  autumn  of  1901. 

The  table  shows  the  average  of  the  two  experiments,  of 
the  yields  obtained  at  one  cutting,  the  second  summer  after 
seeding :  — 


CROPS 

TONS  OF  HAY  TO  THE  ACRE 

Fall  Sowing 

Spring  Sowing 

With 
Winter 
Wheat 

No 
Nurse 
Crop 

With 
Oats 

No 

Nurse 
Crop 

Orchard-grass  .... 
Meadow  fescue  .  .  . 
Timothy  
Common  red  clover  .  . 
Alsike  clover  .... 
Lucerne 

Tons 

3.49 
2.12 
2.94 
3.07 
2.66 
3.65 

Tons 

4.20 
2.86 
3.44 
1.09 
.91 
1.42 

Tons 

4.44 
3.66 
3.27 
3.61 
2.47 
4.03 

Tons 

3.73 
3.64  ' 

4.28 
4.18 
2.79 
4.17 

Average  3  grasses    .     . 
Average  3  clovers 

2.85 
3.13 

3.50 
1.14 

3.79 
3.37 

3.89 
3.71 

81.  Nurse  crops.  —  In  sowing  grass  or  clover  seeds, 
it  is  a  very  common  practice  to  sow  them  with  a  crop  of 
small  grain  or,  as  is  usually  the  case,  with  red  clover,  to 
sow  the  seed  in  spring  on  a  field  of  fall-sown  grain.  When 
grass  seed  is  thus  sown  with  a  grain  crop,  the  latter  is 
spoken  of  as  a  nurse  crop. 

The  advantages  of  a  nurse  crop  are  :  — 

1 .  To  secure  a  greater  return  from  the  land  the  first  year. 

2.  To  economize  labor  by  making  one  seed  bed  answer 
for  two  crops. 

3.  To  check  weeds  from  developing. 

4.  To  hold  snow  to  prevent  washing  of  the  land. 


SEEDS   AND   SEEDING  91 

The  disadvantages  of  a  nurse  crop,  as  far  as  the  grass 
is  concerned,  are  :  — 

1.  Weakening  the  grass  by  shading. 

2.  Injuring  the  young  grass  when  soil  moisture  is  not 
sufficient  for  both. 

3.  Requiring  a  higher  rate  of  seeding  of  the  grass. 
Wheat,  rye,   barley  and  oats   are   desirable   as  nurse 

crops,  probably  in  the  order  named,  but  there  are  few 
comparative  experimental  data  available.  Oats  shade 
the  ground  more  than  barley,  and  barley  more  than  wheat 
or  rye.  The  time  of  harvesting  the  nurse  crop  is  also  of 
some  importance  to  the  grass  crop,  as  sudden  exposure 
of  the  latter  to  heat  and  drought  is  very  harmful.  The 
water  requirement  of  each  of  the  four  nurse  crops  is  least 
for  wheat,  followed  in  order  by  barley,  oats  and  rye. 


CHAPTER  V 
MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 

SUCCESS  in  the  profitable  rearing  of  herbivorous  animals 
is  nearly  always  conditioned  on  good  grass.  This  applies 
almost  as  truly  to  the  most  specialized  forms  of  animal 
husbandry  as  to  the  primitive  wandering  herdsman.  The 
highest  type  of  agriculture  is  in  those  regions  where  grass 
culture  is  most  developed.  Meadows  usually  supply  the 
most  economical  feed  that  can  be  preserved.  Pastures, 
whether  temporary  or  permanent,  furnish  the  cheapest 
means  for  maintaining  farm  animals  that  can  be  grown, 
and  permit  the  utilization  of  land  too  poor  or  too  rough  to 
use  for  other  farm  crops. 

82.  Meadow  mixtures.  —  The  practice  of  growing 
mixtures  of  grasses  or  legumes  or  both,  is  an  old  one 
antedating  in  agriculture  the  sowing  of  pure  cultures. 
Originally  grass  seeds  were  gathered  from  mixed  meadows, 
and  hence  pure  sowings  could  not  be  made.  In  oriental 
countries,  especially  India,  where  labor  is  very  cheap, 
all  sorts  of  crops  are  still  grown  in  mixtures,  and  the  belief 
prevails  generally  that  a  larger  total  return  is  thus  secured. 
The  cost  of  harvesting  each  separately  is  so  great  that  such 
mixed  plantings  are  seldom  made  in  Europe  or  America, 
and  only  where  all  of  the  plants  in  the  mixture  can  be 
harvested  at  the  same  time,  or  where  the  harvesting  of 
the  one  does  not  interfere  with  the  further  development 
of  the  other. 

92 


MEADOWS  AND   PASTURES  93 

So  far  as  hay  plants  are  concerned,  experience  and 
experiments  both  show  that  as  a  rule  larger  yields  are 
secured  from  mixtures  than  from  pure  cultures.  Ex- 
ceptions are,  however,  found  in  such  crops  as  alfalfa  and 
sometimes  Italian  rye-grass,  mainly  because  no  other 
plants  will  coincide  with  either  of  these  in  producing 
several  cuttings. 

Among  the  reasons  why  mixtures  yield  better  as  a  rule 
than  pure  cultures  are  the  following :  — 

1.  The  diverse  root  habits  of  the  different  crops  make 
their  distribution  through  the  soil  more  thorough. 

2.  Their   differing   requirements    do   not   make   them 
direct   competitors,    but   enable   them   more   thoroughly 
to  utilize  the  soluble  substances  of  the  soil. 

3.  The  average  annual  return  can  be  made  more  nearly 
even  over  a  longer  period  by  including  both  short-lived, 
quick-growing  plants,  and  long-lived  plants. 

4.  The  loss  by  insects  or  disease  is  lessened,  as  most  of 
these  attack  but  a  single  plant  species.     Thus,  pure  cul- 
tures furnish  far  better  opportunities  for  their  increase 
and  spread  than  do  mixed  cultures.     In  mixtures,  such 
losses  are  often  confined  to  but  a  single  species  in  the  mix- 
ture ;   and  as  this  leaves  more  room  for  the  others  to  de- 
velop, there  is  at  least  a  partial   compensation  for  the 
damage.     Practically  the  same  facts  hold  true  if  any  of 
the  species  in  the  mixture  are  destroyed  or  injured  by 
drought  or  other  adverse  weather  conditions. 

5.  The  leaves  and  shoots  of  different  grasses  and  legumes 
vary  greatly  in  habit  and  in  light  requirement.     Some 
low-growing  species  do  well  in  the  shade  of  taller  species, 
and   thus   the   total   quantity   of   herbage   is   increased. 
Low-growing  plants  form  the  so-called  "  bottom  grass  " 
in  contrast  to  the  "  top  grass  "  of  tall  species.     A  mixture 


94 


FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 


of  the  two  is  good  practice  and  apparently  good  theory. 
Among  the  common  "  bottom  "  hay  plants  are  blue-grass, 
redtop,  sheep's  fescue  and  the  clovers;  typical  "  top 
grasses  "  are  orchard-grass,  tall  oat-grass  and  timothy. 

6.  Legumes  probably  aid  the  growth  and  increase  the 
protein  content  of  the  non-legumes  in  the  mixture. 

Besides  the  reasons  which  apparently  affect  the  yield, 
mixtures  afford  a  more  varied  and  usually  better  feed, 
and  mixtures  of  grasses  and  legumes  are  more  easily  cured 
than  legumes  alone. 

Data  from  various  experiment  stations  showing  the 
relative  returns  from  mixtures  and  pure  sowings  are  given 
in  the  accompanying  table  :  — 

TABLE  SHOWING   HAY  YIELDS  IN  POUNDS  TO  THE  ACRE  OP 
MIXED  GRASSES  COMPARED  TO  THE  BEST  SINGLE  GRASS 


GRASS  OR  MIXTURE 

ILLINOIS 
EXPERIMENT 
STATION 

ONTARIO 
AGRICULTU- 
RAL COLLEGE 

KANSAS 

EXPERIMENT 
STATION 

MINNESOTA 
N.  E.  EXPERI- 
MENT 
STATION 

Timothy 

4400  —  2  yr 

6940  —  7  yr 

4779  —  4  yr 

4340  —  1  yr 

Red  clover  

4200  —  2  yr. 

6620  —  6  yr. 

5490  —  4  yr. 

8000  —  1  yr. 

Alfalfa 

Redtop    

3600  —  1  yr. 

3580  —  7  yr. 

3399  —  2  yr. 

5260  —  1  yr. 

Timothy  and  mammoth 

Timothy    and    medium 

KOfln          o  vr 

c^on    —  4  vr 

7S°0     -  1  vr 

Tall  oat  and  alfalfa    .     . 

8820  —  2  yr. 

Timothy  and  alfalfa 

8000  —  2  yr. 

Tall  oat  and  mammoth 

clover       

7160  —  2  yr. 

Timothy  and  mammoth 

clover       

7140  —  2  yr. 

Brome  and  red  clover 

4133  —  4  yr. 

Brome  and  alfalfa      .     . 

5473  —  4  yr. 

Brome,        orchard-grass 

and  red  clover  .     .     . 

3825  —  4  yr. 

Brome-grass,       timothy 

and  red  clover  .     .     . 

3560  —  4  yr. 

8480  —  1  yr. 

Brome  and  timothy 

5160  —  1  yr. 

Timothy  and  redtop 

8740  —  1  yr. 

MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES  95 

83.  Composition  of  meadow  mixtures.  —  Innumerable 
meadow  mixtures  have  been  recommended  by  writers, 
based  partly  on  observation  and  partly  on  theoretical 
considerations.  European  authorities  advise  as  a  rule 
complex  mixtures.  They  also  advise  a  heavier  rate  of 
seeding  where  several  or  many  grasses  are  mixed.  Such 
complex  mixtures  have  not  found  much  favor  in  America 
as  yet,  either  at  the  hands  of  experimenters  or  farmers. 

The  principal  objects  desired  in  mixtures  are  to  secure 
plants  of  varying  habit  adapted  to  the  conditions  under 
which  they  are  to  be  grown,  and  to  have  them  matijre  at 
about  the  same  time. 

Important  mixtures  which  are  based  both  on  sound 
experiment  and  abundant  observations  include  the  fol- 
lowing :  — 

1.  Timothy  and  red  clover,  the  standard  mixture  for 
the  timothy  region  on  well-drained   soils.      Where  red 
clover  fails,  it  may  be  replaced  with  alsike,  or  both  clovers 
may  be  used.     Frequently  redtop  is  added  to  the  mixture. 

2.  Redtop  and  alsike  clover  for  low  wet  lands  in   the 
timothy  region.     If  the  land  is  not  too  wet,  timothy  may 
be  added.     Fowl  meadow-grass  is  also  well  adapted  to 
such  soils. 

3.  Orchard-grass,  tall  oat-grass  and  alsike  clover.    This 
mixture  is  especially  desirable  where  timothy  and  red 
clover  do  not  succeed   well.     Italian  rye-grass   may  be 
added  to  this  mixture  to  increase  the  yield  of  the  first  crop. 

4.  For  semi-humid  regions  brome  and  timothy  or  brome- 
and  orchard-grass. 

5.  Where  alfalfa  thrives,  it  makes  good  mixtures  with 
timothy,  tall  oat,  slender  wheat  or  brome-grass. 

A  complex  mixture  that  has  been  recommended  at  the 
Ontario  Agricultural  College,  particularly  for  pasturage, 


96  FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

but   also  for  hay,   contains  the  following  seeds  in  the 
amounts  needed  to  the  acre  :  — 

Alfalfa ; 5  pounds 

Alsike  clover 2  pounds 

White  clover 1  pound 

Trefoil       1  pound 

Orchard-grass     . 4  pounds 

Meadow  fescue        4  pounds 

Tall  oat-grass 3  pounds 

Timothy 2  pounds 

Meadow  foxtail       2  pounds 

Total 24  pounds 

84.  Treatment  of  hay  meadows.  —  Hay  meadows  may 
be   distinguished  as  temporary  meadows   where  the  lay 
is  for  1  or  2  years  and  permanent  meadows  where  the  lay 
is  for  3  years  or  an  indefinite  longer  period. 

The  yield  on  permanent  meadows  may  usually  be  in- 
creased (1)  by  plowing  or  harrowing;  (2)  by  occasional 
reseedings ;  and  (3)  by  the  use  of  fertilizers. 

85.  Scarifying   old   meadows.  —  The   scarifying  of  an 
old  meadow  by  harrowing  in  early  spring  with  a  disk  or 
other  harrow  usually  encourages  a  larger  growth  of  grass. 
In  some  sections  it  must  be  done  with  judgment  as  other- 
wise the  increased  growth  may  be  largely  weeds. 

In  the  case  of  certain  grasses  with  rootstocks  like 
Bermuda-  and  Johnson-grass  the  field  may  be  plowed  and 
hai  rowed,  the  effect  being  a  greatly  increased  crop  of 
grass.  The  same  method  can  be  used  with  brome-grass, 
but  more  care  must  be  used,  as  brome  is  more  easily 
destroyed  than  the  other  two  grasses. 

86.  Reseeding  old  meadows.  —  It  is  rarely  good  practice 
to  keep  meadows  for  a  long  period  of  years  even  if  fer- 
tilized annually.     In  time  the  proportion  of  weeds  in- 
creases and  often  mosses  and  lichens  become  abundant. 


MEADOWS  AND   PASTURES  91 

The  latter  are  supposed  to  indicate  a  lack  of  lime,  but 
they  often  remain  in  spite  of  liming. 

At  the  Massachusetts  Experiment  Station  it  was  found 
that  the  yield  on  certain  plots  was  greatly  increased  by 
replowing  and  reseeding  without  changing  the  amount 
of  fertilizer  applied.  Thus  on  a  plot  fertilized  annually 
with  5805  pounds  of  wood  ashes  to  the  acre  the  portion 
plowed  and  reseeded  yielded  8546  pounds  hay  to  the  acre 
while  that  portion  not  replowed  nor  reseeded  yielded  but 
6243  pounds.  On  a  plot  fertilized  annually  with  8  tons  of 
barnyard  manure  the  part  plowed  and  reseeded  produced 
10,002  pounds  hay  to  the  acre  in  comparison  with  5642 
pounds  on  the  portion  not  reseeded.  The  only  difference 
in  the  fertilizer  application  was  that  the  manure  was  har- 
rowed in  the  plowed  portion  and  top-dressed  in  the  undis- 
turbed part. 

Another  method  is  sometimes  used  by  farmers,  especially 
on  land  difficult  to  plow;  namely,  that  of  scattering  a 
little  new  seed  over  the  meadow  each  year,  especially 
of  such  grasses  and  clovers  which  tend  to  disappear. 

87.  Fertilizers  for  hay  crops.  —  Most  of  the  hay  grown 
in  the  northeastern  fourth  of  the  United  States  and 
adjacent  Canada  is  timothy  and  red  clover,  with  a  much 
smaller  proportion  of  redtop,  alsike  and  other  plants. 
At  least  three-fourths  of  the  total  yield  in  this  region  is 
produced  from  a  two  years'  lay  grown  in  the  five-course 
rotation  of  corn,  oats,  wheat,  clover,  timothy  or  some 
essentially  similar  rotation.  In  this  rotation  fertilizer  is 
rarely  applied  to  the  hay  crop,  which  can  therefore  obtain 
only  the  residues  of  fertilizers  applied  to  the  grain  crops. 
With  this  system  of  agriculture  the  average  yield  of  hay 
an  acre  for  the  region  mentioned  is  according  to  census 
figures  about  1.3  tons  an  acre.  In  this  area  a  yield  to  be 

H 


98  FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

considered  good  should  reach  at  least  1.5  tons  an  acre 
and  to  be  large  2  to  2.5  tons  an  acre.  With  heavy  fer- 
tilizing yields  of  5  to  6  tons  an  acre  or  even  more  have 
been  secured.  As  a  rule,  the  timothy  region  has  ample 
rainfall ;  so  that  the  principal  factor  in  limiting  the  hay 
yield  is  the  fertility  of  the  land. 

While  larger  hay  yields  can  be  obtained  by  the  use  of 
heavy  applications  of  fertilizers,  the  practice  of  selling 
hay  as  a  money  crop  has  almost  universally  been  con- 
demned by  agricultural  writers  because  a  bulky  crop  con- 
tains so  much  nitrogen,  phosphorus  and  potassium,  which 
is  usually  considered  as  selling  that  much  of  the  fertility 
of  the  land.  This  conclusion  is,  however,  based  more  on 
theoretical  considerations  than  on  any  adequate  basis 
of  empirical  data. 

The  results  of  the  long-continued  rotation  experiments 
at  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station  show  that  the  residues 
of  fertilizers  from  the  cereal  crops  will  give  as  a  rule  a 
good  increase  in  the  crops  of  both  clover  and  timothy,  as 
compared  to  unfertilized  plots. 

From  the  results  secured  with  fertilizers  applied  to 
grasses  it  is  an  open  question  whether  it  would  not  be 
more  profitable  to  apply  the  fertilizers  to  this  crop  than 
to  the  hoed  or  small  grain  crops.  Lyon  and  Morgan  in 
discussing  .this  problem  advance  the  following  reasons 
why  it  would  apparently  be  better  to  apply  the  fertilizers 
to  the  hay  crop  in  New  York  :  — 

"  (1)  Fertilizers  applied  to  grass  increase  not  only  the 
growth  of  that  part  of  the  crop  cut  for  hay,  but  also  the 
roots  and  sod  which  are  plowed  under  the  soil  and  in  de- 
composing add  to  the  soil  productiveness.  It  seems,  there- 
fore, that  anything  that  aids  the  growth  of  timothy  would 
help  the  grain,  while  the  reverse  is  not  true  in  the  same  sense. 


MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES  99 

"  (2)  The  hay  crop  is  generally  the  crop  which  in  a  rota- 
tion with  grain  brings  the  largest  financial  returns  in 
New  York  State.  If  a  certain  application  of  manures 
increases  in  the  same  ratio  the  yields  of  hay  and  grain, 
the  value  of  the  increase  in  the  former  crop  would  be 
greater  than  that  of  the  latter.  It  should  pay  best  to 
increase  the  crop  that  is  worth  the  most,  provided  the 
cost  of  the  increase  is  the  same  in  both  cases. 

"  (3)  Grass  is  peculiarly  sensitive  to  readily  available 
nitrogen  in  fertilizers.  Grain  crops  are  not  benefited 
to  the  same  extent  by  this  form  of  nutrient.  As  most 
commercial  fertilizers  contain  some  more  or  less  readily 
available  nitrogen,  much  of  which  may  be  carried  off  in 
the  drainage  water  and  thus  be  lost  to  crops  after  the  year 
it  is  applied,  it  would  seem  to  be  advisable  to  add  this  to 
the  crop  that  it  will  benefit  most.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  phosphorus  and  potassium  contained  in  the  fertilizer 
are  not  removed  in  large  amounts  by  the  drainage  water 
and  the  unused  parts  remain  in  the  soil  to  benefit  the 
succeeding  grain  crops." 

Whether  or  not  it  is  best  to  apply  the  fertilizers  to  the 
hay  crop  or  elsewhere  in  the  rotation,  there  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  judicious  fertilizing  of  hay  crops  is  often 
very  profitable,  especially  where  fertilizers  can  be  obtained 
cheaply  and  where  the  good  city  markets  for  the  hay  are 
convenient. 

Well-rotted  barnyard  manure  invariably  increases  the 
crop  of  hay  greatly,  but  in  the  absence  of  this  material  com- 
parable results  may  be  secured  with  commercial  fertilizers. 

The  results  of  many  fertilizer  trials  on  mixed  grasses 
and  legumes,  both  in  Europe  and  in  America,  lead  to  the 
general  conclusion  that  nitrogenous  fertilizers  tend  to 
increase  the  proportion  of  grass  herbage,  while  phosphate 


100        FOEAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

and  potash  fertilizers  stimulate  the  growth  of  legumes 
particularly.  Lime  is  far  more  pronounced  in  its  effect 
on  legumes  than  on  non-legumes. 

At  the  Massachusetts  Experiment  Station  it  has  been 
observed  that  a  top  dressing  of  muriate  of  potash  to  a 
mixed  plot  of  timothy,  redtop  and  clover  caused  a  re- 
markable increase  in  the  proportion  of  clover.  The 
further  work  at  this  station  showed  that  sulfate  of  potash 
was  far  more  efficient  in  this  respect  than  the  muriate. 

For  very  heavy  yields  of  grass  a  larger  application  an- 
nually of  a  complete  fertilizer  is  necessary.  Thus  Wheeler 
at  the  Rhode  Island  Experiment  Station  was  able  to  se- 
cure yields  of  hay  averaging  over  4  tons  per  acre  for  3  years 
by  using  the  following  amount  of  fertilizers  to  the  acre  :  — 

350  pounds  nitrate  of  soda. 

500  pounds  acid  phosphate. 

200  pounds  muriate  of  potash. 

It  is  questionable  whether  such  heavy  applications  are 
most  profitable  in  the  long  run,  especially  as  in  seasons 
of  insufficient  moisture  the  full  benefit  of  the  fertilizer 
cannot  be  secured. 

On  the  basis  of  the  Rhode  Island  work  Wheeler  recom- 
mends an  annual  application  to  each  acre  of :  — 

400  to  500  pounds  acid  phosphate. 

300  to  350  pounds  muriate  of  potash. 

300  to  350  pounds  nitrate  of  soda. 

From  the  results  secured  at  the  Massachusetts  Experi- 
ment Station,  Brooks  suggests  that  the  hay  crop  in  rota- 
tions be  top-dressed  about  May  1  with  the  following 
mixture  of  fertilizer  to  the  acre  :  — 

Nitrate  of  soda 175  to  200  pounds 

Acid  phosphate         50  to  100  pounds 

High  grade  sulfate  of  potash 50  to  100  pounds 


MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES  101 

If  a  high  percentage  of  clover  is  desired  m  the  hay  the 
nitrate  of  soda  should  be  omitted,  and  the  following 
applied  to  the  acre :  — 

Acid  phosphate 100  pounds 

Basic  slag  meal 400  pounds 

High  grade  sulfate  of  potash 150  to  200  pounds 

For  permanent  meadows  producing  market  hay  com- 
posed largely  of  grass,  Brooks  recommends  with  much 
confidence  the  use  to  the  acre  of  the  following  amounts  of 
fertilizer :  — 

Nitrate  of  soda 150  to  250  pounds 

Basic  slag  meal .     300  to  400  pounds 

High  grade  sulfate  of  potash 75  to  100  pounds 

Top-dressings  of  nitrate  of  soda  alone  are  not  considered 
desirable  for  a  longer  period  than  two  years. 

On  peat  marsh  soils  in  Wisconsin  the  yield  of  hay  from 
a  mixture  of  timothy  and  alsike  yielded  without  treatment 
2727  pounds  hay  an  acre.  An  application  of  275  pounds 
acid  phosphate  an  acre  increased  the  yields  on  two  plots 
to  5015  and  5158  pounds  respectively.  Sulfate  of  potash, 
100  pounds  to  the  acre,  increased  the  yields  on  two  plots 
to  4588  and  4781  pounds  respectively.  When  both  ferti- 
lizers were  used  together  in  the  amounts  above  indicated 
the  results  were  not  as  good  as  the  phosphate  alone. 

At  the  West  Virginia  Experiment  Station  the  applica- 
tion of  both  barnyard  manure  and  commercial  fertilizers 
greatly  increased  the  yields  of  timothy.  On  the  larger 
part  of  a  4-acre  field  that  yielded  1  ton  hay  or  less  a  year 
the  average  application  for  6  years  of  17  loads  of  manure 
brought  up  the  yield  to  the  acre  from  3775  pounds  the 
first  year  to  11,315  pounds  the  sixth  year,  or  an  average 


102        FOE  AGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

of  8044  pounds  annually  for  the  6  years.  Commercial 
fertilizer  composed  of  nitrate  of  soda,  acid  phosphate  and 
sulfate  of  potash  gave  an  average  yield  of  6380  pounds 
hay  per  acre,  the  average  annual  cost  of  the  fertilizer  per 
acre  being  $11.76.  In  both  cases  the  increased  yield  gave 
a  large  profit. 

88.  Top-dressing  for  aftermath  or  rowen.  —  Fertilizing 
meadows  to  secure  a  larger  aftermath  or  rowen  is  seldom 
practiced.     From     experiments     at    the     Massachusetts 
Experiment    Station    Brooks    considers    that    fertilizing 
grass    meadows    with    150    to    200    pounds    nitrate    of 
soda    immediately    after    the    first    crop  is    removed    is 
profitable. 

89.  Acreage  of  improved  pasture  in  the  United  States. 
—  Statistics  and  other  data  relative  to  American   pasture 
crops  are  very  unsatisfactory.     According  to  the  thirteenth 
United  States  census,  the  crops  where  acreage  was  reported 
occupied  68.3  per  cent  of  the  improved  land.     The  im- 
proved land  not  occupied  by  crops  included  pasture  land, 
fallow  land,  land  in  orchards  whose  acreage  was  not  re- 
ported and  land  in  house  yards  and  barnyards. 

As  both  fallow  lands  and  the  stubble  and  aftermath  of 
various  crops  furnishes  considerable  temporary  pasturage, 
it  is  conservative  to  consider  30  per  cent  of  the  improved 
land  as  pasture,  but  probably  not  much  over  20  per  cent  of 
the  improved  land  is  permanent  or  long  lay  pasture.  If  this 
be  true,  the  acreage  of  permanent  improved  pastures  is 
one-third  greater  than  that  devoted  to  "  hay  and  forage  " 
and  one-half  as  great  as  that  of  corn. 

90.  Area  of  wild  pasture  in  the  United  States.  —  From 
the  census  figures  of  1909  the  following  table  is  compiled, 
assuming  that  20  per  cent  of  the  improved  farm  land  area 
is  pasture  and  that  half  of  the  unimproved  land  is  pastur- 


MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES  103 

able.  According  to  these  estimates  the  area  of  unim- 
proved pasture  lands  is  about  4  times  as  large  as  the 
improved  pastures :  — 


CLASS  OF  LAND 

PER  CENT  OF 
TOTAL  AREA 

46.2 

Improved  farm  land                             

25  1 

9.2 

Non-farm  lands                                          .... 

53  8 

37.4 

91.  Most  important  tame  pasture  plants.  —  The  most 
important  grazing  plants  on  improved. American  pastures 
are  Kentucky  blue-grass,  redtop,  white  clover  and  Ber- 
muda. Of  less  importance  are  timothy,  orchard-grass, 
Canada  blue-grass,  red  clover,  alfalfa,  alsike,  lespedeza 
and  crab-grass. 

As  to  the  relative  value  of  these,  there  are  no  data 
available  to  make  accurate  estimates.  Kentucky  blue- 
grass  is  by  far  the  most  valuable  pasture  grass  in  the  North 
and  Bermuda-grass  in  the  South.  White  clover  and  red- 
top  are  of  importance  over  most  of  North  America  except 
the  semi-arid  regions  and  the  extreme  South. 

Scaling  the  principal  tame  permanent  pasture  grasses 
on  a  basis  of  100,  the  following  estimate  is  made  of  their 
relative  importance  in  America  :  — 

Kentucky  blue-grass     ,     .  40  Alsike  clover     .....  3 

Redtop        ......  10  Canada  blue-grass     ...  3 

White  clover 8     Orchard-grass 2 

Bermuda-grass     ....  8  Johnson-grass   .....  2 

Timothy      ......  8     Lespedeza 2 

Red  clover       .     ,     .     .     ,  4  Crab-grass    ......  2 

Alfalfa   .  4  All  others  4 


104        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

These  are  but  rough  estimates,  and  probably  minimize 
rather  than  exaggerate  the  relative  importance  of  the  first 
five. 

92.  Palatability  of  pasture  grasses.  —  One  method  by 
which  the  relative  palatability  of  pasture  grasses  may  be 
ascertained  is  to  permit  animals  to  have  free  access  to 
plots  of  different  grasses  and  then  to  note  their  preferences. 

At  the  Washington  Experiment  Station  horses  pre- 
ferred brome-grass  to  orchard  and  red  clover  mixed,  to 
tall  oat-grass  and  to  a  mixture  of  11  standard  grasses. 

At  the  Idaho  Experiment  Station  sheep  showed  the 
following  order  of  choice :  1.  orchard-grass ;  2.  meadow 
fescue;  3.  brome;  4.  perennial  rye-grass;  5.  tall  oat- 
grass. 

In  tests  at  Cornell  Experiment  Station  cattle  exhibited 
the  following  order  of  preference :  brome,  Kentucky 
blue-grass,  meadow  fescue,  timothy,  orchard-grass,  red- 
top. 

The  marked  preference  of  cattle  for  brome  was  also 
shown  at  the  Ottawa,  Canada,  Experimental  Farm,  where 
cattle  grazed  brome  close  to  the  ground,  while  scarcely 
touching  mixed  timothy  and  red  clover. 

93.  Pasture  yield  as  determined  by  number  of  cuttings. 
—  At  the  Michigan  Experiment  Station  a  plot  of  orchard- 
grass  cut  7  times  with  a  lawn  mower  yielded  29  pounds 
of  dry  hay  and  a  similar  plot  cut  4  times  60.9  pounds. 
A  third  plot  not  cut  until  in  bloom  gives  112  pounds  of 
hay. 

In  a  similar  experiment  with  timothy  the  yield  for 
8  cuttings  was  15.76  pounds,  and  for  a  single  cutting  where 
in  bloom,  172  pounds. 

Extensive  investigations  of  this  sort  have  been  con- 
ducted by  Zavitz  at  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College  from 


MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 


105 


whose  data  the  following  table  is  compiled.  The  signifi- 
cance of  figures  thus  obtained  is  not  very  clear.  The 
total  yield  is  invariably  less  than  if  the  crop  be  cut  1  to 
3  times.  This  can  only  be  interpreted  as  indicating  that 
the  yield  of  pastures  is  less  than  that  of  meadows,  but 
what  relation  the  yield  from  6  or  more  clippings  is  to 
that  eaten  by  animals  on  pasture  continuously  is  not 
evident :  — 

TONS  OF  GREEN  HERBAGE  TO  THE  ACRE  AT  EACH  OF  Six 
CUTTINGS  PER  ANNUM.  AVERAGE  OF  FOUR  YEARS  FOR 
GRASSES,  THREE  YEARS  FOR  LEGUMES 


CROP 

FIRST 
CUT- 
TING 

SECOND 
CUT- 
TING 

THIRD 
CUT- 
TING 

FOURTH 
CUT- 
TING 

FIFTH 
CUT- 
TING 

SIXTH 
CUT- 
TING 

TOTAL 
PER 

ANNUM 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tons 

Tall  oat-grass 

5.93 

.83 

1.59 

1.23 

1.33 

.87 

11.8 

Orchard-grass 

4.34 

1.71 

.92 

1.30 

1.05 

1.40 

10.7 

Meadow  fescue 

4.60 

1.72 

.69 

1.09 

.84 

.61 

9.6 

Timothy    .     .     . 

4.87 

1.71 

.58 

1.11 

.62 

.49 

9.4 

Perennial  rye 

4.10 

1.49 

.61 

.78 

.90 

.80 

8.7 

Kentucky  blue    . 

3.76 

1.04 

.73 

.58 

.58 

.58 

7.5 

Redtop       .     .     . 

2.71 

1.03 

.62 

.67 

.44 

.34 

5.8 

Alfalfa        .     .     . 

8.73 

3.06 

2.70 

3.62 

1.56 

1.27 

20.9 

Red  clover      .     . 

10.88 

1.10 

2.37 

3.39 

1.52 

1.15 

20.4 

White  clover 

7.35 

2.35 

1.95 

1.91 

2.08 

1.63 

17.3 

Alsike    .... 

8.22 

.28 

3.06 

1.41 

2.56 

.93 

16.5 

94.  Pasture  mixtures.  —  There  is  only  one  safe  rule 
to  follow  in  regard  to  grasses  and  clovers  to  be  planted 
for  permanent  pastures ;  namely,  use  those  which  experi- 
ence has  shown  hold  the  ground  most  tenaciously.  It  is 
desirable  to  use  in  addition,  however,  one  or  more  quick 
growing  grasses  to  furnish  pasturage  while  the  slower 
growing  ones  are  developing. 


106         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 

In  England  excellent  results  have  been  obtained  by 
planting  complex  mixtures  containing  long  and  short- 
lived, and  shallow  and  deep-rooted  plants.  No  such 
mixtures  have,  as  yet,  proved  profitable  in  America. 

For  the  humid  portions  of  America  the  best  permanent 
pasture  grasses  come  in,  for  the  most  part,  spontaneously. 
These  are,  in  the  timothy  region  :  1.  Kentucky  blue-grass 
and  white  clover  for  fertile,  moist  soils ;  2.  redtop  for  low, 
wet  soils ;  3.  Canada  blue-grass,  redtop  and  white  clover 
for  upland  soils  ;  in  the  cotton  region  :  4.  Bermuda-grass, 
lespedeza  and  bur  clover  for  clayey  lands ;  5.  carpet- 
grass  for  sandy  coastal  lands. 

The  lines  of  division  indicated  are  by  no  means  absolute, 
but  the  pasture  mixtures  proposed  by  various  investigators 
generally  recognize  the  fundamental  importance  of  most 
of  the  ten  species  named.  As  more  or  less  temporary 
elements,  other  seeds  should  be  included  in  seeding  new 
pasture,  as  follows  :  — 

Where  the  soil  and  the  region  are  adapted  to  Kentucky 
blue-grass,  add  white  clover,  timothy  and  either  Italian 
or  perennial  rye-grass.  Meadow  fescue  is  also  desirable 
in  many  places. 

Where  the  soil  is  wet  and  the  region  adapted  to  redtop, 
add  white  clover  and  alsike  clover. 

Where  the  soil  is  poor  upland  in  the  north,  use  redtop, 
Canada  blue-grass  and  white  clover. 

Where  Bermuda-grass  thrives,  add  lespedeza,  white 
clover,  bur  clover  and  Italian  rye-grass. 

Where  carpet-grass  predominates,  Italian  rye-grass  may 
prove  valuable  for  temporary  pasture  in  winter. 

In  addition  to  the  grasses  mentioned,  orchard-grass 
is  always  desirable  because  it  furnishes  the  earliest  pas- 
turage, and  southward  tall  oat-grass  is  very  useful.  On 


MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES  107 

the  sandy  lands  along  the  coast  northward,  sheep's  fescue 
will  often  grow  to  the  practical  exclusion  of  other  grasses. 

Attempts  to  establish  permanent  pastures  of  other 
grasses  in  places  where  one  or  more  of  those  mentioned 
above  are  aggressive  have  rarely  been  successful. 

95.  Treatment  of  permanent  pastures.  —  The  treat- 
ment of  pastures  to  secure  the  maximum  return  is  a  subject 
upon  which  much  writing  has  been  done,  but  in  America 
at  least  but  little  experimentation. 

The  first  comprehensive  experiment  of  this  kind  is  that 
being  carried  on  at  the  Virginia  Experiment  Station,  but 
no  results  of  which  have  yet  been  published.  The  object 
of  these  experiments  is  to  determine  the  relative  merits 
of  different  treatments  :  — 

1.  Continuous  light  grazing. 

2.  Continuous  heavy  grazing. 

3.  Alternate  light  grazing,  without  harrowing. 

4.  Alternate  light  grazing,  with  harrowing. 

5.  Alternate  heavy  grazing,  without  harrowing. 

6.  Alternate  heavy  grazing,  with  harrowing. 

It  is  only  by  such  experiments  that  quantitative  results 
can  be  obtained  that  will  definitely  determine  the  best 
methods  of  treating  permanent  pastures. 

From  observations  there  is  strong  reason  to  believe 
that  heavy  grazing,  but  not  overgrazing,  is  preferable  to 
light  grazing.  In  any  pasture,  unless  overgrazed,  it  may 
be  observed  that  the  animals  keep  the  grass  closely  grazed 
in  definite  areas  and  neglect  the  remainder.  The  animals 
prefer  the  short,  fresh  growth  and  avoid  the  older  leaves 
and  stems,  unless  driven  by  hunger.  Farmers  usually 
prefer  to  graze  their  pastures  lightly  so  as  to  have  a  sur- 
plus in  case  of  emergency  —  such  as  periods  of  drought  — 
but  it  would  seem  wiser  to  utilize  the  pastures  more  fully 


108         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 

and  provide  against  emergencies  by  having  a  reserve  of 
other  feed. 

Among  methods  that  have  been  recommended  to  im- 
prove pastures  are  :  — • 

1.  Sowing  a  little  seed  each  year. 

2.  Light  harrowing,  especially  with  a  chain  drag. 

3.  Mowing  the  weeds  in  time  to  prevent  their  seeding. 

4.  Top-dressing  with  manure  or  other  fertilizers. 

On  account  of  the  relatively  small  return  from  pastures, 
the  amount  that  can  be  spent  profitably  in  improving  them 
is  small,  often  not  more  than  one  dollar  an  acre  a  year. 
With  this  limitation  in  mind,  the  first  three  methods  of 
improvement  are  with  little  doubt  sound,  but  fertilizers 
can  usually  be  applied  more  profitably  elsewhere  than  in 
pastures.  Seeding  on  pastures  where  the  turf  is  dense 
and  the  weeds  few  is  not  advisable.  As  may  easily  be 
observed,  the  sod  in  early  spring  on  most  pastures  does 
not  make  a  complete  cover,  but  the  vacant  spaces  often 
occupy  one-fourth  to  one-half  the  ground.  Where  this 
is  the  case,  it  is  probable  that  a  light  scattering  of  seed  in 
very  early  spring  is  desirable. 

96.  Pasturing  meadows.  —  The  aftermath  or  rowen  of 
grass  meadows  is  very  commonly  used  for  pasturage  in 
the  fall.     If  the  grazing  be  light,  the  probabilities  are 
that  the  succeeding  year's  crop  is  not  injuriously  affected, 
but  no  critical  experiments  on  this  subject  have   been 
reported. 

Pasturing  meadows  in  early  spring  is,  however,  generally 
considered  to  be  harmful  to  the  succeeding  hay  crop. 

97.  Carrying   capacity.  —  The   carrying   capacity  of  a 
pasture  is  the  number  of  animals  of  a  particular  kind  that 
a  unit  of  area  will  support  for  a  definite  period.     On  per- 
manent pastures  and  on  range  lands  this  is  usually  stated 


MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES  109 

in  terms  of  animals  to  the  acre  for  the  grazing  season. 
Thus,  the  carrying  capacity  of  much  of  the  western  range 
lands  is  1  steer  to  100  acres.  The  carrying  capacity  of  the 
best  blue-grass  pasture  is  1  steer  to  about  2.5  acres,  and  for 
the  best  Bermuda  and  lespedeza  pasture  in  the  South  2 
steers  to  1  acre.  In  the  last  two  examples  the  period 
is  understood  to  be  that  of  the  growing  season,  but  on 
range  lands  the  period  is  sometimes  meant  to  cover  the 
whole  year. 

98.  Temporary    pastures.  —  A    temporary    pasture    is 
one  designed  to  carry  stock  for  only  a  short  period.    Tem- 
porary   pastures    are    usually   sown    to    annual    plants. 
Sometimes  such  sowings  are  arranged  so  as  to  have  a 
succession  of  temporary  pastures.     This  is  often  desirable 
in  raising  hogs,  but  is   also  used  with  sheep  and  dairy 
cows. 

In  pasturing  such  crops,  there  is  less  waste  by  trampling 
if  the  area  to  be  grazed  each  day  is  inclosed  by  hurdles 
or  other  temporary  fencing.  This  also  insures  that  the 
animals  secure  about  the  same  feed  each  day,  as  otherwise 
they  will  eat  the  more  palatable  portions  of  the  plants 
first. 

A  system  of  temporary  pastures  requires  accurate  knowl- 
edge in  regard  to  the  date  a  crop  must  be  sown  to  be 
pastured  at  a  particular  time,  the  approximate  amount 
of  feed  an  acre  will  provide  and  the  length  of  time 
during  ivhich  the  crop  may  be  grazed. 

Such  a  system  is  essentially  identical  with  a  soiling  sys- 
tem (Par.  36),  but  it  permits  the  use  of  some  crops  not 
adapted  to  the  latter,  such  as  chufas,  peanuts  and  sweet 
potatoes. 

99.  Temporary  pasture  crop  systems  for  hogs.  —  Pas- 
ture crop  systems  for  feeding  hogs  continuously  have  been 


110        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 


devised  by  various  investigators.  Annuals  are  best  suited 
to  this  purpose  not  only  because  the  period  during  which 
they  can  be  used  and  the  feed  they  will  produce  may  be 
quite  accurately  predicted,  but  because  the  planting  of 
perennials  in  small  patches  is  often  objectionable.  If  fields 
of  perennials  like  clover  or  alfalfa  are  available  they  may 
well  be  utilized,  however,  in  some  systems.  Two  systems 
of  temporary  pastures  are  here  given  as  examples,  one 
adapted  to  the  North  and  the  other  to  the  South. 

Duggar,  at  the  Alabama  Experiment  Station,  on  the 
basis  of  extensive  experiments  suggests  the  following  suc- 
cession of  pasture  crops  for  pigs  in  that  state  :  — 

SYSTEM  OF  PASTURE  CROPS  FOR  PIGS.    ALABAMA 


CROPS 

WHEN  SOWN 

WHEN  PASTURED 

Rape     
Chufas       

Fall 
Spring 

.January  and  February 
January  and  February 

Rape 

Fall 

March  to  April  15 

Vetch  and  oats        .     .     . 
Vetch  and  oats 
Crimson  clover        .     .     . 
Oats  and  wheat 
Rape 

Fall 
Fall 
Fall 
Fall 
Spring 

March  to  April  15 
April 
April 
April  and  May 
May  and  June 

Turf  oats        
Sorghum 

Spring 
Spring 

June 
July  and  August 

Cowpeas         
Spanish  peanuts      .     .     . 
Cowpeas         
Sweet  potatoes 
Sorghum    
Chufas       
Rape 

Spring 
Spring 
Spring 
Spring 
Spring 
Spring 
Fall 

July  and  August 
September  to  November 
September  to  November 
September  to  November 
September  to  November 
December 
December 

Fisher  at  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station  has  arranged 
the  following  data,  from  which  a  system  of  temporary 
pastures  for  hogs  in  that  state  may  be  selected  :  — • 


MEADOWS  AND  PASTURES 


111 


PASTURE  FOR  HOGS  BY  MONTHS.     INDIANA 


APPROXI- 

No.  OP 

MATE  LENGTH 

100- 

MONTH  TO 
PASTURE 

NAME  OP  CROP 

DATE  OP  SOWING 

OP  TIME 
CROP 

POUND 

HOGS 

APPORD8 

PER 

PASTURE 

ACRE 

April         .     . 

Rye 

August  or  September 

Six  weeks 

10-15 

May    .     .     . 

Oats 

March  20  to  April  10 

Six  weeks 

8-12 

Oats  and  rape 

March  20  to  April  10 

Four  weeks 

12-20 

Oats  and  field  peas 

March  20  to  April  10 

Four  weeks 

12-20 

Rape 

April  1-10 

Four  weeks 

12-15 

June    .     .     . 

Rape  and  oats 

April  10-30 

Four  weeks 

15-20 

Field  peas  and  oats 

April  10-30 

Four  weeks 

12-15 

Rape 

April  10-30 

Four  weeks 

12-20 

July     .     .     . 

Rape 

April  1-10  and 

grazed     down   in 

May 

Four  weeks 

12-20 

Rape 

May  1-20 

Four  weeks 

12-20 

Clover,  red  or  mam- 

March   25  to  April 

Remainder 

moth 

10  without   nurse 

of  season 

8-10 

crop 

Sorghum 

May  10-20 

Four  weeks 

15-20 

August     . 

Clover,  red  or  mam- 

Spring sown 

Remainder 

moth 

of  season 

8-10 

Rape 

April  10-30  and 

Four  weeks 

12-20 

grazed    down    in 

June 

Rape 

June  1-15 

Four  weeks 

12-20 

Sorghum 

May  20-30 

Four  weeks 

15-20 

Soybeans  or  cowpeas 

May  20  to  June  1 

Six  weeks 

12-18 

September 

Clover,  red  or  mam- 

Spring sown 

Remainder 

moth 

of  season 

8-10 

Soy   beans   or   cow- 

May  20  to  June  15 

Six  weeks 

12-18 

peas 

Rape 

Second  or  third 

Four  weeks 

12-20 

growth 

Rape 

June  20  to  July  10 

Four  week* 

12-20 

Pumpkins 

May  15  to  June  15 

Fed  in  lots 

Sorghum 

May  20  to  June  15 

Fed  in  lots 

October    .     . 

Clover,  red  or  mam- 

Spring sown 

Remainder 

moth 

of  season 

8-10' 

Rape 

Same  as  September 

Four  weeks 

12-20 

Rye 

August  1-30 

Remainder 

of  season 

8-10 

Soybeans     or     cow- 

June  1  to  July  15 

Four  weeks 

12-20' 

peas 

112        FOEAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 

100.  Bloating  or  hoven,  —  Ruminant  animals  are  often 
subject  to  bloating  when  pastured  on  such  crops  as  alfalfa, 
red  clover  or  rape.  Sainfoin  and  lespedeza  are  said 
never  to  cause  bloating,  but  most  succulent  legumes  will 
probably  cause  the  trouble. 

Among  the  prevention  measures  that  have  been  sug- 
gested are  the  following  :  — • 

1.  Do  not  turn  the  cattle  into  the  pasture  when  it  is 
wet  with  dew  or  rain,  or  the  cattle  very  hungry. 

2.  In  pasturing  rape  have  an  abundance  of  salt  avail- 
able to  the  animals. 

3.  Have  a  supply  of  hay  or  straw  or  a  grass  pasture 
available  to  the  animals.     It  is  said  they  will  instinctively 
turn  to  the  grass  or  hay  when  bloat  threatens. 

Should  bloating  occur,  several  remedies  are  usually 
at  hand  which  will  afford  material  relief.  A  large  bit, 
the  diameter  of  a  pitchfork  handle,  may  be  tied  in  the 
mouth ;  a  piece  of  rubber  tubing  may  be  passed  through 
the  mouth  to  the  first  stomach;  or,  as  a  last  resort,  the 
animal  may  be  tapped  to  allow  the  escape  of  gas.  For 
this  purpose  a  trocar,  such  as  is  used  by  veterinary  sur- 
geons, is  best ;  but  in  the  absence  of  this,  a  small-bladed 
knife  may  be  used  to  make  the  incision  about  6  inches 
in  front  of  and  slightly  below  the  left  hip  bone.  A  straw 
or  quill  may  be  used  to  permit  the  escape  of  gas.  Care 
should  be  taken  not  to  allow  the  straw  or  quill  to  work 
down  out  of  sight  into  the  incision. 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE  STATISTICS  OF  FORAGE  CROPS 

STATISTICS  regarding  forage  crops  are  instructive  to  the 
agronomist  in  showing  the  relative  importance  and  geograph- 
ical distribution  of  each  crop  reported  upon.  The  data 
from  successive  censuses  also  disclose  the  progress  or  re- 
gression which  a  crop  may  have  made.  Unfortunately 
only  the  principal  crops  are  included  in  the  returns.  The 
relative  importance  of  the  various  forage  in  different  coun- 
tries varies  so  greatly  that  the  statistical  returns  are  not 
directly  comparable,  as  a  rule. 

101.  Classification  of  crops  in  statistical  returns.  —  - 
In  the  Thirteenth  United  States  Census,  1909,  the  cereal, 
seed  and  forage  crops  are  thus  classified :  cereals  in- 
clude corn,  oats,  wheat,  barley,  buckwheat,  rye,  rice, 
emmer  and  spelt,  kafir  and  milo.  "  Other  grains  and 
seeds  "  include  beans,  peas,  peanuts,  flaxseed,  grass  seeds, 
flower  seeds  and  vegetable  seeds.  "  Hay  and  forage  " 
include  all  crops  cut  for  hay  and  fodder,  excluding  the 
cereals,  —  except  such  as  are  cut  for  hay, —  and  also  ex- 
cluding improved  pastures. 

Iri  considering  this  classification  of  crops,  it  needs  to 
be  pointed  out  that  under  "  cereals  "  is  included  a  vast 
amount  of  produce  other  than  grain  utilized  as  forage. 
Thus,  the  herbage  of  the  corn  crop,  whether  preserved  as 
stover,  silage  or  pulled  fodder,  is  used  purely  as  forage, 
i  113 


114         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 

and  indeed  forms  an  important  percentage  of  the  food  of 
farm  animals.  It  is  safe  to  estimate  the  value  of  the  herbage 
of  the  corn  plant  at  about  50  per  cent  of  the  grain,  assuming 
that  all  the  corn  is  allowed  to  mature.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  a  considerable  and  increasing  amount  is  preserved  as 
silage.  A  small  part  of  the  corn  crop  is  reported  under 
the  item  "  Coarse  Forage." 

Of  kafir  corn  and  other  grain  sorghums,  probably  75  per 
cent  is  harvested  entire  and  thus  used  as  forage. 

On  the  Pacific  Coast  much  wheat  and  barley  is  harvested 
as  hay,  and  throughout  the  country  more  or  less  rye  is 
similarly  used,  but  all  this  is  included  under  forage  as 
"  Grains  Cut  Green."  The  straw  of  small  grains,  espe- 
cially that  of  oats,  has  considerable  value  as  forage. 

In  the  same  way  the  straw  of  cowpeas,  Canada  and 
garden  peas,  soybeans  and  other  leguminous  seed  crops 
has  also  a  considerable  value  as  forage. 

The  bearing  of  these  facts  is  that  the  relative  importance 
of  grain  production  to  forage  production  is  necessarily 
somewhat  inaccurate  on  account  of  the  classification,  the 
statistics  exaggerating  the  importance  of  the  first,  and 
diminishing  that  of  the  latter. 

In  the  Census  of  Canada,  forage  crops  are  included 
under  8  items  ;  namely,  Hay  and  clover ;  Alfalfa ;  Corn 
and  forage  ;  Other  forage  crops  ;  Mangolds  ;  Sugar  Beets ; 
Turnips;  Other  field  roots.  The  item  of  "  Other  forage 
crops  "  includes  mainly  the  small  grains,  either  alone  or  in 
mixture,  cut  for  hay  or  for  green  feed. 

102.  Forage  crops  in  general,  United  States,  1909.  — 
In  the  accompanying  table  appear  the  statistics  of  the 
Thirteenth  United  States  Census  showing  the  relative 
importance  of  forage  crops  in  the  different  sections  of  the 
United  States,  and  in  the  eleven  states  which  lead  in 


THE  STATISTICS   OF  FORAGE  CROPS 


115 


forage  production.  (Compare  Fig.  8.)  The  data  are 
tabulated  to  show  percentage  of  total  and  of  improved 
land  occupied  by  forage  crops,  and  average  yield  and  value 
to  the  acre  :  — 

STATISTICS  OF  FORAGE  CROPS,  UNITED  STATES,  1906 


DIVISION 

PER  CENT 
OF  LAND  IN 

UNITED 
STATES 

PER  CENT 
OF  IM- 
PROVED 
LAND 

AVERAGE 
YIELD 

TO   THE 

ACRE  19C9 

AVERAGE 
VALUE  TO 
THE  ACRE 
1909 

Tons 

United  States    .... 

100.0 

15.1 

1.35 

$11.40 

New  England 

5.3 

52.3 

1.23 

15.57 

Middle  Atlantic       .     . 

11.8 

29.1 

1.32 

15.31 

East  North  Central     . 

20.4 

16.6 

1.38 

12.52 

West  North  Central    . 

37.9 

16.7 

1.33 

7.71 

South  Atlantic   .     .     . 

4.0 

5.9 

1.02 

13.25 

East  South  Central 

3.4 

5.7 

1.03 

11.92 

West  South  Central     . 

4.5 

5.6 

1.03 

9.09 

Mountain       .... 

6.9 

31.3 

1.73 

13.38 

Pacific       .     .     . 

5.8 

19.1 

1.73 

17.69 

Iowa 

7.0 

17.1 

1.55 

11.76 

New  York      .... 

7.0 

34.0 

.40 

15.34 

Nebraska       .... 

6.3 

18.5 

.28 

7.02 

Kansas 

5.5 

13.2 

.50 

8.09 

Minnesota      .... 

5.5 

20.1 

.53 

6.77 

Missouri    . 

5.0 

14.8 

1.13 

9.33 

South  Dakota    . 

4.8 

21.7 

1.06 

4.44 

Illinois 

4.6 

11.9 

1.3C 

12.11 

Ohio      

4.6 

17.2 

1.37 

12.81 

Pennsylvania 

4.3 

24.4 

1.19 

14.77 

Wisconsin       .... 

4.3 

25.9 

1.62 

13.27 

These  figures  for  hay  and  forage  crops,  not  including 
pastures,  are  also  compared  with  other  important  crops. 
The  acreage  of  72,280,776  acres  was  37.8  per  cent  of  that  of 
all  cereal  crops.  It  was  73.5  per  cent  of  the  acreage 


116         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

devoted  to  corn,  but  much  larger  than  that  of  any  other 
cereal  crop.  It  was  15.1  per  cent  of  all  the  improved 
land  in  the  country,  but  this  includes  a  considerable  area 
of  land,  especially  west  of  the  Mississippi  River,  on  which 
hay  is  cut,  but  which  has  never  been  plowed.  It  will 
also  be  noted  that  over  one-third  of  the  hay  crop  was  in 
the  West  North  Central  Division;  namely,  Minnesota; 


FIG.  8.  —  Map  showing  percentage  of  cultivated  land  in  forage  crops, 

1909-1910. 

Iowa,  Missouri,  North  Dakota,  South  Dakota,  Nebraska 
and  Kansas.  Over  one-fifth  of  the  crop  was  in  the  East 
North  Central  Division;  namely,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois, 
Michigan  and  Wisconsin.  These  two  groups  of  states 
produce  nearly  three-fifths  of  the  hay  crop  of  the  country. 
The  Middle  Atlantic  States  —  New  York,  Pennsylvania 
and  New  Jersey  —  produce  nearly  12  per  cent  of  the  crop. 
The  three  groups  of  states  together  have  70  per  cent  of 


THE  STATISTICS   OF  FORAGE  CROPS  117 

the  total  United  States  acreage,  and  nearly  as  great  a 
percentage  of  total  production  of  forage  crops. 

The  states  with  largest  acreage  are  Iowa  and  New 
York,  each  with  over  5,000,000  acres;  Nebraska,  with 
over  4,000,000  acres  ;  Kansas,  Minnesota,  Missouri,  South 
Dakota,  Illinois,  Ohio,  Pennsylvania  and  Wisconsin, 
each  with  over  3,000,000  acres. 

103.  Hay  and  forage  by  classes,  United  States,  1909.  — 
In  the  accompanying  table  is  shown  the  acreage  of  the 
different  classes  of  forage  crops  grown  in  the  United  States 
in  1909,  as  determined  by  the  Thirteenth  Census.  The 
acreage  of  corn,  the  principal  American  crop,  and  largely 
used  as  forage  both  as  roughage  and  as  grain,  is  added  for 
comparison.  Corn  roughage  is  economically  comparable 
to  hay  made  from  small  grains,  but  it  should  be  borne  in 
mind  that  much  small  grain  straw  —  especially  of  oats  — • 
is  also  fed  as  roughage.  In  the  census  table  several  of  the 
categories  include  more  than  one  crop  as  regards  the  plant 
actually  grown.  Thus,  "  Grains  Cut  Green "  include 
oats,  rye,  wheat,  barley  and  emmer ;  "  Coarse  Forage  " 
covers  corn  and  sorghums  and  similar  plants  cut  for  fod- 
der or  silage ;  "  Other  tame  or  cultivated  grasses  "  include 
all  hay  grasses  and  legumes  except  timothy,  red  clover, 
alfalfa  and  millet. 

Timothy  and  clover.  —  Perhaps  the  most  striking  thing 
about  this  table  is  the  preponderating  importance  of 
timothy  and  clover,  alone  or  mixed.  The  two  plants 
constitute  one-half  of  the  total  acreage  of  American  forage 
crops,  even  if  the  17,000,000  acres  of  wild  hay  meadows 
are  included.  Excluding  these  wild  meadows  timothy  and 
clover  constitute  over  three-fourths  of  the  acreage  of  hay 
and  forage  crops.  No  figures  are  available  for  the  relative 
importance  of  timothy  and  clover  each  considered  alone, 


118        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 

but  from  various  sources  of  information  it  is  probable 
that  there  is  about  3  times  as  much  timothy  as  clover. 

Corn.  —  Notwithstanding  the  high  importance  of 
timothy  and  clover  the  fact  must  not  be  overlooked  that 
the  greatest  amount  of  roughage  is  produced  by  corn.  In 
the  forms  of  stover,  silage  and  pulled  fodder,  the  herbage 
of  probably  90  per  cent  of  the  corn  crop  is  utilized  as 
feed.  On  the  whole,  it  is  conservative  to  place  the 
average  yield  of  dry  edible  fodder  from  corn  at  about 
one  ton  per  acre. 

Alfalfa.  —  The  area  of  this  crop  approximates  five 
million  acres.  Due  to  the  fact  that  this  crop  can  be  cut 
two  or  more  times  in  a  season  the  average  yield  is  con- 
siderably higher  than  other  hay  plants.  Ninety-five  per 
cent  of  the  acreage  is  west  of  the  Mississippi. 

Grains  cut  green.  —  In  semi-arid  regions  and  on  poor  soils 
in  humid  regions,  small  grains  are  often  cut  for  hay,  the 
total  acreage  of  these  harvested  in  the  United  States  in 
1909  being  nearly  equal  to  that  of  alfalfa.  In  the  humid 
regions  oats  and  rye  are  most  often  utilized  in  this  way; 
in  California,  and  to  a  less  extent  in  other  Pacific  States, 
barley  is  a  common  hay  crop ;  in  wheat  regions  it  is  a 
frequent  practice  to  get  the  fields  ready  for  harvesting 
the  grain  by  cutting  the  marginal  portion  for  hay.  Three- 
fourths  of  the  grain  hay  is  cut  west  of  the  Mississippi. 

Coarse  forage.  —  This  term  includes  mainly  corn  and 
sorghum  cut  green  for  fodder  or  silage. 

Millet.  —  The  different  varieties  of  foxtail  millet  are 
much  grown  in  the  northern  portion  of  the  great  plains, 
over  half  of  the  acreage  being  from  this  area.  Elsewhere, 
especially  in  the  South,  it  is  sown  to  obtain  a  quick* crop  of 
hay. 

Wild,   salt  or  prairie  grasses.  —  The   states   in   which 


THE  STATISTICS   OF  FORAGE  CROPS 


119 


TABLE  SHOWING  AVERAGE  PRODUCTION  AND  RELATIVE  IMPOR- 
TANCE OF  HAY  FORAGE  CROPS,  UNITED  STATES,  1909 


NAME  OP  CROP 

TOTAL 
ACREAGE 

YIELD 

TO  THE 

ACRE 

TOTAL 
PRODUCTION 

PERCENTAGE 
OF  TOTAL  HAY 
AND  FORAGE 
PRODUCTION 

Acres 

Tons 

Tons 

Corn  .     .     . 

98,382,665 

1. 

98,382,665 

Oat  straw     .     .     . 

35,159,441 

.6 

21,095,665 

Wheat  straw 

44,262,592 

Barley  straw     .     . 

7,698,706 

Rye  straw     . 

2,195,561 

Total  hay  and  for- 

age      .  .v  •--•;•••  .. 

72,280,776 

1.35 

97,453,735 

100 

Timothy  l     .     .     . 

24,457,584 

1.22 

30,359,698 

31.2 

Red  clover  1 

12,274,454 

1.29 

15,532,602 

15.9 

Alfalfa      .... 

4,704,146 

2.52 

11,859,881 

12.2 

Wheat 

oil    '**** 

4,324,878 

1.24 

5,367,292 

5.5 

Barley 

Other  tame  grasses 

4,218,957 

0.99 

4,166,772 

4.3 

Sorghums      .     .     , 

2,079,242 

1.5 

3,118,863 

3.2 

Millet       .... 

1,117,769 

1.38 

1,546,533 

1.6 

Cowpea         ;•    .     . 

1,100,000 

1 

1,100,000 

1.1 

Redtop2        .     .     . 

800,000 

1 

800,000 

.8 

Kentucky  blue-grass 

800,000 

1 

800,000 

.8 

Alsike  2          .     .     . 

500,000 

1 

500,000 

.5 

Bermuda-grass  2 

400,000 

1 

400,000 

.4 

Johnson-grass  2 

400,000 

1 

400,000 

.4 

Orchard-grass  2 

300,000 

1 

300,000 

.3 

Crab-grass  2       .     . 

300,000 

1 

300,000 

.3 

Canada  peas     .     . 

250,000 

1 

250,000 

.3 

Broine      .... 

100,000 

1 

100,000 

.1 

All  others     .     .     . 

600,000 

1 

600,000 

.6 

Wild  grasses 

17,186,522 

1.07 

18,383,574 

18.9 

1  In  the  production  figures  for  timothy   and  for  clover,  half  of  the 
production  of  timothy  and  clover  mixed  has  been  credited  to  each  plant. 

2  This  acreage  has  been  estimated  from  that  of  "  Other  Tame  Grasses." 


120        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR    CULTURE 

natural  or  wild  hay  is  most  largely  harvested  are  the  follow- 
ing :  Nebraska,  North  Dakota,  South  Dakota,  Minnesota 
and  Kansas.  It  is  a  surprising  fact  that  the  total  acreage 
is  over  one-half  of  that  of  timothy  and  clover  combined, 
and  nearly  one-fourth  of  the  total  hay  and  forage 
acreage. 

Other  tame  or  cultivated  grasses.  —  The  relatively  small 
importance  of  all  other  hay  grasses  to  timothy  is  striking, 
their  total  acreage  being  less  than  one-fourth  that  of 
timothy.  These  figures  must,  however,  be  considered 
with  due  allowance,  as  some  of  these  grasses  are  often 
mixed  with  timothy,  either  being  sown  or  appearing  spon- 
taneously. The  most  important  of  the  "  other  tame 
grasses "  are  redtop,  orchard-grass,  brome,  Kentucky 
blue-grass,  Johnson-grass,  Bermuda-grass  and  crab-grass. 

Root  forage.  —  Root  crops  for  forage  primarily  are 
relatively  very  unimportant  in  the  United  States.  They 
are  seldom  grown  where  field  corn  or  sorghum  thrive  well. 
For  this  reason  they  are  utilized  mainly  in  the  Mountain 
and  Pacific  States.  Besides  the  roots  grown  for  forage 
a  large  amount  of  feed  results  from  the  refuse  of  sugar 
beets  after  the  sugar  is  extracted.  This  is  fed  fresh,  or 
preserved  by  drying  or  by  ensiling. 

104.  Forage  statistics  for  Canada.  —  The  census  statis- 
tics of  forage  crops  for 'Canada  are  compiled  under  different 
headings  from  those  used  in  the  United  States  Census,  but 
in  the  main  they  are  comparable.  The  item  "  Hay  and 
Clover  "  in  the  former  comprises  both  the  "  timothy  and 
clover "  and  "  other  cultivated  grasses "  in  the  latter. 
"  Other  forage  crops  "  includes  the  same  crops  as  "  grains 
cut  green."  It  will  be  noted  that  corn  is  relatively  unim- 
portant in  Canada  except  in  Ontario,  and  that  root  crops 
are  far  more  largely  grown  than  in  the  United  States. 


THE  STATISTICS   OF  FORAGE  CROPS 
ACREAGE  OF  FORAGE  CROPS,  CANADA,  1910 


121 


HAY  AND 
CLOVER 

ALFALFA 

CORN  AND 
FORAGE 

OTHER 
FORAGE 
CROPS 

ROOTS 

Ontario  .... 

Acres 

3216514 

Acres 

45,625 

Acres 

245,048 

Acres 

26,256 

Acres 

148  493 

Quebec  .... 

3,224,122 

4,046 

41,082 

19,483 

13,964 

New  Brunswick  . 
Nova  Scotia    .     . 
Prince  Edward     . 
Manitoba   .     .     . 
Alberta       .     .     . 
Saskatchewan 
British  Columbia 

625,911 
542,007 
215,083 
137,671 
149,973 
37,694 
133,217 

83 
10 
2 
539 
2,592 
182 
3,741 

235 
561 
191 
4,603 
1,259 
675 
355 

2,098 
2,273 
917 
73,205 
67,304 
53,863 
15,164 

8,611 
9,635 
6,537 
2,099 
1,039 
2,412 
2,312 

Canada,  total  . 

8,280,192 

56,820 

294,009 

260,563 

195,102 

CHAPTER   VII 
TIMOTHY 

TIMOTHY  is  by  far  the  most  important  hay  grass  in 
America.  A  peculiar  interest  attaches  to  this  crop  because 
its  first  cultivation  was  on  this  continent,  though  the  plant 
is  of  Old  World  origin.  Its  American  given  name  has  be- 
come adopted  in  all  languages. 

105.  Botany.  —  Timothy  (Phleum  pratense)  belongs 
to  a  genus  in  which  botanists  recognize  10  species.  All 
of  these  are  confined  to  the  Old  World  with  the  exception 
of  Mountain  Timothy  (Phleum  alpinum),  which  also 
extends  to  North  America,  occurring  generally  through 
the  western  mountains,  and  south  as  far  as  the  White 
Mountains  of  New  England.  The  botanical  evidence  is 
strongly  against  common  timothy  being  native  to  the 
New  World.  It  was  early  introduced,  but  has  never  been 
found  in  localities  where  its  introduction  was  improbable. 
Most  northern  plants  common  to  the  Old  and  the  New 
World  range  in  North  America  either  from  Alaska  south- 
ward through  the  western  mountains,  or  southeastward  to 
New  England,  or  else  range  from  Greenland  south  to  New 
England.  It  has  been  thought  by  some  that  timothy  was 
native  in  New  England,  but  as  the  plant  is  not  native 
to  the  northward  of  New  England,  nor  in  Alaska  and  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  it  is  quite  certain  that  the  plant  is  not 
endemic  to  North  America. 

122 


TIMOTHY 


123 


FIG.   10.  —  Timothy.     Florets 
showing  the  different  parts. 

In  the  Old  World 
timothy  is  native  to  most 
of  Europe  north  to  lati- 
tude 70  degrees,  and  east- 
ward through  Siberia. 
It  also  occurs  in  the 
Caucasus  region  and  in 
Algeria.  Through  this 
area  occur  about  10  dif- 
ferent botanical  varieties, 
none  of  which  have  ever 
been  cultivated. 

106.  Agricultural  his- 
tory.-- Timothy  was 
first  brought  into  cultivation  in  the  United  States.  It 
was  first  propagated,  according  to  Jared  Eliot,  by  one 
Herd,  who  found  the  grass  growing  along  the  Piscataqua 
River  near  Portsmouth,  New  Hampshire.  Eliot  in  1747 
recommends  it  for  Massachusetts  under  the  name  Herd- 
grass.  He  also  cites  Ellis  to  the  effect  that  Herd-grass 
had  even  that  early  been  introduced  into  England-  from 
America.  The  culture  of  timothy  is  thus  older  than  that 
of  any  other  hay  grass  excepting  perennial  rye-grass.  A 


FIG.  9.  —  Timothy  (Phleum  pratense). 
a,  glumes ;  b,  floret  with  glumes  re- 
moved. 


124        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

letter  to  Eliot  from  Benjamin  Franklin  under  date  of  July 
16,  1747,  states  that  the  Herd-grass  seed  received  proved 
to  be  "  mere  timothy."  This  is  the  earliest  record  of  the 
name  timothy.  This  designation  is  supposed  to  be  derived 
from  Timothy  Hansen,  who  apparently  brought  the  grass 
from  New  England  into  Maryland.  Later  its  culture 
spread  to  Virginia,  and  from  there  was  sent  to  England 
about  1760  under  the  name  timothy.  In  England  the 
grass  has  been  known  also  as  meadow  cat's-tail,  but 
the  name  timothy  is  now  used  in  nearly  all  languages. 
Timothy  was  the  most  important  hay  grass  in  the  United 
States  as  early  as  1807,  and  its  supremacy  has  never  been 
seriously  threatened. 

107.  Agricultural  importance.  —  Practically  all  of  the 
hay  grass  grown  in  the  northeastern  fourth  of  the  United 
States  and  in  southern  Canada  is  timothy,  either  alone  or 
in  mixtures.  An  increasing  quantity  is  also  being  grown  in 


•445930 
-189253 
1-199712 
-Z7627 
J2Z934 

208889 

31064 

36352 

•C.E69 


FIG.  11.  —  Distribution  of  timothy,  1909-1910.     Figures  equal  acres. 


TIMOTHY  125 

the  irrigated  valleys  of  the  northwest  and  in  the  mountain 
states.  The  total  value  of  the  timothy  crop,  either  alone 
or  in  mixtures,  was,  according  to  the  last  United  States 
Census,  about  $300,000,000,  which  was  -J-  of  the  value  of 
the  corn  crop,  -f  of  the  value  of  the  wheat  crop  and  f  of 
the  value  of  the  cotton  crop  for  the  same  year. 

The  total  acreage  devoted  to  timothy  was  as  much  as 
that  of  all  other  cultivated  hay  plants  combined,  includ- 
ing clover  and  alfalfa.  All  of  the  other  perennial  hay 
grasses  combined  occupied  but  one-fourth  the  acreage  of 
timothy. 

In  Europe  timothy  has  never  been  of  the  highest  im- 
portance among  grasses,  but  its  use  there  in  recent  years 
seems  to  be  steadily  increasing.  In  other  countries  it  is 
but  little  grown. 

108.  Climatic  adaptations.  —  Timothy  is  a  northern 
grass,  and  does  not  succeed  well  in  the  United  States 
south  of  latitude  36°  excepting  at  higher  elevations.  It 
thrives  fairly  well  on  the  Alaskan  coast,  but  in  the  interior 
suffers  both  from  winter  cold  and  summer  drought.  No 
definite  data  regarding  the  minimum  cold  that  timothy 
will  withstand  have  been  recorded,  but  it  is  more  cold 
resistant  than  most  cultivated  grasses.  At  Copper  Center, 
Alaska,  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  timothy  plants 
survived  a  winter  when  redtop,  tall  oat-grass,  orchard- 
grass  and  velvet-grass  were  completely  destroyed.  It  has 
also  matured  seeds  at  this  place. 

It  does  not  well  withstand  hot,  humid  summers,  and 
successful  fields  are  rarely  found  in  the  area  adapted  to 
cotton.  Crab-grass  and  other  summer  weeds  are  also 
destructive  competitors.  When  planted  in  the  cotton 
belt  usually  but  one  cutting  of  timothy  can  be  obtained, 
and  the  plants  then  disappear.  Even  this  degree  of  success 


126         FOEAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 

can  be  obtained  in  the  Gulf  States  only  in  the  richest  lands 
Tracy  suggests  that  the  growth  stimulated  by  warm 
winter  weather  weakens  the  bulbs  so  that  the  plants  are 
less  able  to  withstand  summer  heat  and  drought. 

109.  Soil   adaptation.  —  Timothy   is   best   adapted   to 
clay  or  loam  soils.     It  does  not  possess  much  drought 
resistance,   but   on  the   other   hand  thrives   best   where 
moisture  is  abundant.     In  moist  meadows  it  is  sometimes 
the  practice  to  sow  timothy   seed  directly  without   any 
preparation  of  the  soil,  and  timothy  often  makes  a  splendid 
stand,  largely  replacing  the  native  plants.     While  timothy 
is  mainly  grown  in  humid  regions,  it  is  being  more  and 
more  grown  in  irrigated  regions,  as  large  yields  of  readily 
marketable  hay  can  be  obtained,  particularly  in  valleys 
too  cool  for  the  most  successful  growing  of  alfalfa. 

110.  Advantages    of    timothy.  —  The    importance    of 
timothy  in  America  is  due  to  its  rather  remarkable  com- 
bination of  qualities,  as  well  as  to  its  splendid  adaptation 
to  the  same  area  as  red  clover.     Its  advantages  may  thus 
be  summarized :  — 

1.  It  produces  good  yields. 

2.  A  stand  is  usually  secured  easily. 

3.  The  seed  is  usually  high  in  purity,  germinates  well 
and  the  cost  per  acre  is  less  than  that  of  any  other  grass. 

4.  It  seldom  lodges. 

5.  It  is  easily  cut  and  cured. 

6.  The  period  during  which  it  may  be  harvested  is 
longer  than  that  of  most  grasses. 

7.  It  is  the  favorite  hay  for  city  horses,  and  the  demand 
and  price  is  therefore  greater  than  that  of  other  hays. 

Among  the  objections  that  have  been  urged  against 
timothy  are :  first,  its  lateness ;  second,  the  fact  that  it 
becomes  somewhat  woody ;  third,  its  comparatively  low 


TIMOTHY  127 

nutritive  value ;  and  fourth,  the  small  amount  of  after- 
math. The  last  objection  affects  its  value  as  a  pasture 
plant ;  the  others  are  not  important. 

111.  Rotations.  —  Timothy  is  used  in  the  most  common 
of  all  rotations  in  the  North ;   namely,  corn,  oats,  wheat, 
clover,  timothy.     The  corn  may  be  replaced  by  potatoes 
or  other  cultivated  crop,  the  wheat  by  rye  and  the  oats 
sometimes  by  cowpeas  or  soybeans,  but  there  is  no  equally 
good  substitute  for  the  clover  and  timothy. 

In  places  where  timothy  is  grown  for  market,  or  where 
the  land  is  poor,  timothy  is  often  allowed  to  stand  for  five 
years  or  even  more.  On  such  fields  the  yields  may  be  kept 
up  by  top-dressing  with  barnyard  manure  or  other  nitrog- 
enous fertilizers. 

Old  timothy  sod  is  apt  to  harbor  insects,  and  therefore 
it  is  best  to  plow  in  winter,  if  possible. 

112.  Seed.  — Timothy  seed  is  nearly  always  very  pure, 
and  is  never  adulterated  except  with  old  seed.     The  small 
size  and  characteristic  appearance  of  timothy  seed,  as  well 
as  its  low  price,  make  adulteration  with  other  seeds  prac- 
tically impossible.     Some  of  the  grains  are  free. 

The  purity  of  good  seed  should  be  99  per  cent  or  more, 
and  the  viability  98-99  per  cent.  Germination  ensues  in 
5-6  days. 

The  legal  weight  of  the  seed  is  commonly  45  pounds  per 
bushel.  It  actually  varies,  however,  from  42  to  50  pounds. 
One  pound  contains  1,170,500  to  1,320,000  seeds. 

The  viability  of  timothy  seed  is  retained  better  than 
that  of  most  grasses.  Stebler  and  Volkart  state  that  it 
loses  very  little  during  the  first  year  in  viability,  about 
10  per  cent  the  second  year,  and  15  to  25  per  cent  the  third 
year.  At  the  Vienna  Seed  Testing  Station  seed  4  years 
old  had  lost  but  9.4  per  cent  of  its  viability.  At  the 


128        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 

Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  seed  retained  its  viability 
well  for  5  years,  and  then  rapidly  deteriorated. 

The  free  grains  present  in  timothy  seed  show  a  somewhat 
lower  viability  than  the  grains  in  the  hulls,  according  to 
tests  at  both  the  Wisconsin  and  Delaware  Experiment 
Stations. 

113.  Preparation  of  seed  bed.  —  At  the  Utah  Experi- 
ment Station  three  methods  of  preparing  the  ground  for 
seeding  were  compared,  the  plats  being  one-eighth  acre 
in  size :  — 

"  Plat  37  was  harrowed  twice  with  a  disk  harrow, 
once  with  a  square-tooth  harrow,  then  dragged  with  a 
clod  crusher,  followed  by  a  square-tooth  harrow,  after 
which  it  was  sown  and  again  dragged. 

"  Plat  38  was  harrowed  once  with  a  disk  harrow,  again 
with  square-tooth  harrow,  and  the  seed  was  dragged  in 
with  a  clod  crusher. 

"  Plat  39  was  dragged  level  to  receive  the  seed,  passing 
over  the  ground  but  once  with  the  drag  or  clod  crusher, 
and  then  the  seed  was  sown  and  covered  by  the  drag  or 
clod  crusher. 


"  Plat  37,  it  will  be  observed,  was  given  a  large  amount 
of  tillage.  Plat  38  had  a  moderate  amount  of  tillage. 
Plat  39  had  none  at  all.  The  drag  was  used  on  Plats 
38  and  39,  in  order  to  place  the  seed  in  the  same  relative 
condition  on  the  surface  as  the  others,  that  the  question 
of  amount  of  cultivation  might  have  no  disturbing  factors 
in  the  determination  of  results.  Plat  39,  as  will  be  seen, 
was  entirely  untilled,  the  dragging  was  simply  for  the  pur- 
pose of  leveling  the  ground  before  and  after  covering  the 
seed." 


TIMOTHY 


129 


TABLE  SHOWING  EFFECT  OF  DIFFERENT  METHODS  OF  SOIL 
PREPARATION  ON  YIELDS  OF  TIMOTHY.      UTAH   EXP.  STATION 


PLAT 

CROP  OF  1892 

CROP  OF  1893 

TOTAL 
WEIGHT 
1892-3 

TOTAL 
DR* 
MATTER 

Yield  an 
Acre,  Ibs. 

Dry 

Matter 

Yield  an 
Acre,  Ibs. 

Dry 

Matter 

37 

38 
39 

1920 
2680 
3080 

1448.98 
Lost 
2191.72 

1680 
2320 
2200 

1529.81 
2029.07 
2030.16 

3600 
5000 
5280 

2978.79 

4221.88 

114.  Heavy  seeds  or  light  seeds.  —  Heavy  seeds  and 
light  seeds  separated  by  means  of  a  brine  solution  were 
compared  at  the  Utah  Experiment  Station  in  1893.     The 
first  season  crop  from  the  heavy  seed  was  larger  by  28 
per  cent,  but  in  the  second  season  the  two  were  alike. 

Clark  at  the  New  York  (Geneva)  Experiment  Station 
separated  timothy  seed  by  using  salt  solutions  of  differ- 
ent specific  gravities  from  1  to  1.26.  The  percentage 
of  germination  was  smallest  in  the  lightest  seeds  and  great- 
est in  the  heavy  seeds. 

Hunt  mentions  a  test  at  the  Cornell  Experiment  Station 
in  which  three  sizes  of  timothy  seed,  containing  respectively 
600,000,  1,200,000  and  2,000,000  seeds  to  the  pound  were 
grown  in  similar  plots.  The  result  of  a  two  years'  trial 
was  slightly  in  favor  of  the  large  seeds,  both  when  the  same 
number  and  the  same  weight  per  acre  were  planted. 

115.  Rate    of    seeding.  —  The   usual    rate   of    seeding 
timothy  is  12  to  15  pounds  to  the  acre  if  seeded  alone,  and 
about  9  pounds  if  red  clover  is  to  be  added.     Few  rate  of 
seeding  experiments  have  been  reported.     Hunt  at  the 
Cornell  Experiment  Station  tested  various  rates  at  from 
5  to  35  pounds,  and  concluded  that  15  pounds  is  a  desirable 
rate. 


130         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR    CULTURE 

At  the  Utah  Experiment  Station  seed  was  sown  on  poor 
soil  at  four  different  rates  ;  namely,  8,  16,  24  and  32  quarts 
an  acre.  The  largest  hay  yield  was  from  the  24-quart 
seeding  the  first  season  and  from  the  16-quart  seeding  the 
second  season.  The  total  yield  for  the  two  seasons  was 
in  favor  of  the  24-quart  seeding,  but  this  was  but  slightly 
greater  than  the  16-quart  seeding.  In  both  seasons  the 
32-quart  plot  yielded  least. 

Stebler  and  Volkart  in  Switzerland,  and  Werner  in 
Germany,  advise  19  kg.  a  hectare,  which  equals  17  pounds 
an  acre. 

116.  Depth  of  seeding.  —  Timothy  seed,  when  sown 
with  a  hand  seeder  or  with  a  grass  seeder  attachment 
behind  a  grain  drill,  is  left  on  or  very  near  the  surface.     If 
the  seeder  attachment  permits  the  seed  to  drop  in  front 
of  the  grain  drill,  the  timothy  seeds  will  lie  at  various 
depths  from  the  surface  to  that  of  the  grain.     There  is 
reason  to  believe   that   timothy  seed   is   ordinarily  not 
covered  deeply  enough. 

Two  tests  at  the  Utah  Experiment  Station  in  broadcast- 
ing as  compared  with  drilling  gave  contradictory  results. 
In  one  experiment  the  drilled  plots  outyielded  the  broad- 
casted by  50  per  cent  the  first  year  and  32  per  cent  the 
second  year;  in  the  other,  the  broadcasted  plots  gave 
greater  yields  by  35  per  cent  the  first  year  and  53  per  cent 
the  second  season. 

117.  Methods  of  seeding.  —  Four  methods  of  seeding 
timothy  are  in  use  in  America:  (1)  Seeding  in  fall  with 
wheat  or  other  grain;    (2)  Seeding  in  fall  alone  on  pre- 
pared land  ;   (3)  Seeding  in  spring  with  grain ;   (4)  Seeding 
in  the  spring  without  a  nurse  crop. 

The  first  method  of  seeding  timothy  —  namely,  with 
wheat  or  other  grain  in  the  fall  —  is  the  most  common, 


TIMOTHY  131 

probably  60  per  cent  or  more  of  the  timothy  being  thus 
sown.  In  this  case  a  grass-seeding  attachment  is  used  on 
the  grain  drill,  and  the  seed  is  allowed  to  fall  either  behind 
or  in  front  of  the  wheat  drill.  In  the  latter  case,  it  is 
somewhat  covered.  When  thus  seeded,  timothy  makes 
but  little  growth  the  succeeding  year  and  no  crop  can  be 
harvested.  Partly  on  this  account,  medium  red  clover  is 
sown  in  the  wheat  early  in  the  spring.  As  a  result  a 
small  crop  of  red  clover  may  sometimes  be  harvested  the 
same  season,  or  at  least  some  pasturage  be  secured.  The 
next  season  the  crop  is  mainly  clover,  and  thereafter 
practically  all  timothy.  This  method  of  seeding  involves 
a  minimum  amount  of  labor,  and  as  a  rule  gives  entirely 
satisfactory  results.  In  many  places  it  is  unsatisfactory  be- 
cause the  timothy  fields  become  increasingly  foul  year  after 
year.  The  most  troublesome  weeds  are  the  oxeye  daisy 
(Chrysanthemum  Leucanthemum)  and  the  white  fleabane 
(Erigeron  ramosus  and  Erigeron  annuus).  Both  of  these 
weeds  ripen  all  or  much  of  their  seed  before  timothy  is  cut 
'for  hay,  and  as  these  seeds  live  over  in  the  ground  for 
several  years  and  are  returned  to  the  land  in  the  manure, 
timothy  fields  frequently  become  badly  infested. 

The  second  method  —  namely,  of  sowing  alone  in  fall 
—  is  best  where  weeds  are  troublesome,  and  in  general 
southward  of  the  principal  timothy  area.  The  seed  bed 
should  be  well  prepared  after  plowing  wheat  or  other  grain 
stubble,  and  sown  to  timothy  in  late  summer  or  early  fall. 
An  excellent  crop,  practically  free  from  weeds,  will  ordinarily 
be  secured  the  next  season.  Southward  of  the  parallel  of 
36  degrees  red  clover  can  quite  safely  be  sown  with  the 
timothy,  especially  if  it  be  seeded  rather  early.  This 
method  should  be  more  generally  used.  It  involves  more 
labor,  but  produces  cleaner  and  usually  larger  crops. 


132        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR    CULTURE 

The  third  method  —  that  of  sowing  in  spring  with  a 
grain  nurse  crop  —  is  used  quite  largely,  especially  neai 
the  northern  limits  of  timothy  culture,  both  in  the  East 
and  on  irrigated  lands  in  the  West.  Clover  may  be  and 
usually  is  seeded  with  the  timothy.  As  a  rule,  it  is  best  to 
sow  very  early  on  land  that  has  been  plowed  the  previous 
fall.  A  firm  seed  bed  is  better  than  a  loose  one.  With 
this  method  practically  no  timothy  is  secured  the  first 
season. 

The  fourth  method  —  seeding  without  a  nurse  crop  in 
spring  —  is  used  on  irrigated  lands  in  the  Northwest, 
often  with  clover  or  alfalfa,  and  a  fair  cutting  obtained 
the  same  season.  It  is  also  used  on  unirrigated  lands  in 
the  West,  where  soil  moisture  conditions  do  not  permit  of 
fall  seeding.  In  the  latter  case,  the  land  is  sometimes 
plowed  in  the  fall  or  winter  to  conserve  soil  moisture,  and 
to  avoid  delay  in  spring  seeding. 

Spring  seeding,  either  with  or  without  a  nurse  crop,  is 
not  satisfactory  southward,  as  crab-grass  and  other 
summer  weeds  injure  the  timothy  greatly. 

At  the  Iowa  Experiment  Station  timothy  was  sown  alone 
March  23  and  30,  April  6,  13,  20  and  27  and  May  3  and  10. 
The  two  May  sowings  were  complete  failures,  and  the 
April  27  one  nearly  so.  The  March  23  sowing  gave  a  very 
good  stand,  but  the  later  ones  were  inferior. 

118.  Seed  bed.  —  A  fine,  well-firmed  seed  bed  is  prob- 
ably the  most  favorable  for  timothy,  as  for  most  grasses. 
Where  fall  seeding  alone  is  practiced,  a  cultivated  crop 
like  potatoes  or  tobacco  leaves  the  land  in  excellent  shape 
for  timothy. 

If  the  ground  is  loose,  rolling  is  probably  advantageous. 
Rolling  the  ground  after  seeding  was  tested  at  the  Utah 
Experiment  Station,  with  the  result  of  increasing  the  yield 


TIMOTHY 


133 


of  hay  both  where  the  seed  was  drilled  and  where  it  was 
broadcasted. 

At  the  same  experiment  station  the  effect  of  different 
methods  of  preparing  the  seed  bed  was  also  tested,  with 
the  results  shown  in  the  following  table  :  — 

TABLE  SHOWING  YIELDS  OF  TIMOTHY  WITH  DIFFERENT  DEPTHS 
OF  PLOWING.     UTAH  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


CROP  c 

F  1892 

CROP  c 

F  1893 

TOTAL 

1892-3 

DEPTH  PLOWED 

Hay 
to  the 
Acre 

Dry 

Matter 
to  the 
Acre 

Hay 
to  the 
Acre 

Dry 

Matter 
to  the 
Acre 

Hay 
to  the 
Acre 

Dry 

Matter 
to  the 
Acre 

4  inches 

Pounds 

2973 

Pounds 

2473 

Pounds 

2373 

Pounds 

2161 

Pounds 

5346 

Pounds 

4634 

10  inches      .     .     .     ,     . 
7  inches 

3227 
3240 

2748 
2737 

2507 

2827 

2345 
2627 

5734 
6067 

5093 
5364 

Not  plowed,  surface  har- 

4.100 

or  oo 

4O97 

QlCri 

In  this  series  of  experiments  the  yields  are  in  inverse 
relation  to  the  depth  of  plowing. 

119.  Fertilizers  for  timothy.  —  Timothy,  as  ordinarily 
grown  in  the  corn-oats-wheat-clover-timothy  rotation, 
usually  secures  only  the  residues  of  the  fertilizers  that  are 
applied  to  the  cereal  crops.  Where  timothy  meadows  are 
allowed  to  stand  three  years  or  more,  the  yield  can  be  main- 
tained by  top-dressings  of  fertilizer,  especially  barnyard 
manure.  The  experiments  that  have  been  conducted  at 
a  number  of  experiment  stations  have  uniformly  shown 
markedly  increased  yields  from  the  use  either  of  barnyard 
manure  or  of  commercial  nitrogenous  fertilizers.  In  most 
cases,  complete  fertilizers  have  also  given  good  results,  but 
the  return  from  phosphorus  and  potash  is  rarely  so  strik- 
ing as  that  from  nitrogenous  fertilizers. 


134        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

The  data  in  Par.  88  also  refer  largely  to  timothy  or 
timothy  mixtures. 

At  Cornell  Experiment  Station  extensive  fertilizer  trials 
with  timothy  have  been  conducted.  The  largest  yields 
were  obtained  by  using  20  tons  of  barnyard  manure  and 
very  good  results  by  using  10  tons  an  acre.  In  all  cases, 
the  influence  of  nitrate  of  soda  was  very  marked.  The 
most  satisfactory  commercial  fertilizer  was  found  to  be  320 
pounds  nitrate  of  soda,  320  pounds  acid  phosphate  and  80 
pounds  muriate  of  potash  an  acre.  The  results  indicate 
that  a  still  smaller  proportion  of  acid  phosphate  would 
have  been  economical. 

120.  Lime.  —  On  Dunkirk  clay  loam  at  the  Cornell 
Experiment  Station,  applications  of  lime  did  not  increase 
the  hay  yield. 

At  the  Rhode  Island  Experiment  Station  top-dressings 
of  lime  exercised  but  little  influence,  but  it  was  well  marked 
when  the  lime  was  harrowed  into  the  soil. 

In  the  rotations  at  the  Pennsylvania  Experiment 
Station  burned  lime  alone  actually  reduced  the  yields  of 
grass  (timothy  and  clover),  but  ground  limestone  and 
gypsum  each  increased  the  yield  slightly. 

121.  Irrigation.  —  Timothy    is    grown    with    marked 
success  on  irrigated  lands  in  the  West.     An  abundance  of 
water  is  necessary,  as  timothy  is  quickly  injured  by  an 
insufficiency.     Extensive  experiments  on  timothy  under 
irrigation  have  been  conducted  at  the  Utah  Experiment 
Station,  where  it  was  found  better  to  apply  water  at  fre- 
quent intervals.     On  plots  irrigated  at  intervals  of  3,  6,  9, 
12,  15  and  18  days,  the  total  amount  of  water  being  the 
same,  the  total  yields  of  hay  to  the  acre  for  the  three  years 
were  respectively  3640,  4380,  4360,  4340,  4080,  3555  and 
2100  pounds. 


TIMOTHY 


135 


An  oversufficiency  of  water  is  less  injurious  than  too 
little.  Where  the  soil  was  saturated  respectively  4,  3J,  2J, 
2  and  If  feet,  the  total  acre  yields  for  three  years  were 
respectively  6040,  3900,  7020,  3580  and  4750  pounds  of 
hay. 

.  In  another  experiment  the  ground  was  saturated 
respectively  31,  27,  33,  12  and  17  inches  deep,  and  the 
corresponding  yields  per  acre  were  3576,  6496,  6096,  1070 
and  2260  pounds. 

In  a  different  series  of  experiments  the  results  are  thus 
tabulated :  — 


Irrigation    water    applied    in 

inches  to  the  acre  .... 

7.50 

15 

30 

60 

100 

Total  yield  to  the  acre  in  pounds 

3982 

3844 

6054 

8406 

2214 

Yield    to    inch    of    irrigation 

water    . 

531 

256 

202 

140 

22 

It  will  be  noted  that  15  inches  of  water  reduced  the  yield 
somewhat,  a  result  also  secured  with  orchard-grass,  brome 
and  Italian  rye-grass.  According  to  the  above  figures  30 
inches  of  water  on  one  acre  will  yield  but  6054  pounds 
of  hay;  spread  over  two  acres  7688  pounds;  and  over 
four  acres  11,928  pounds. 

Irrigation  by  means  of  a  network  of  lateral  ditches  gave 
higher  yields  than  by  any  other  method  of  applying  the 
water. 

Irrigating  in  the,  day  time,  10  A.M.,  proved  better  than 
irrigating  in  the  evening.  The  average  yields  for  three 
years  were  respectively  3033  and  2033  pounds. 

Irrigating  timothy  fields  both  in  the  fall  and  in  the 
spring  increased  the  yield  over  spring  irrigation  alone  an 
average  of  about  25  per  cent  during  four  seasons. 


136        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

122.  Time  to  cut  for  hay.  —  The  usual  time  recom- 
mended for  cutting  timothy  hay  is  shortly  after  the  anthers 
have  fallen  and  not  later  than  when  the  seed  is  in  the  dough 
stage. 

The  problem  of  the  best  time  to  cut  timothy  for  hay  is  a 
many-sided  one,  and  has  been  attacked  from  several  stand- 
points. The  stage  at  which  the  grass  is  cut  will  affect :  — 

1.  The  total  yield. 

2.  The  palatability. 

3.  The  digestibility. 

4.  The  ease  of  curing. 

5.  The  convenience  of  harvesting. 

6.  The  amount  of  the  next  season's  crop. 

The  most  extensive  studies  on  this  problem  have  been 
those  of  Waters  and  Schweitzer  at  the  Missouri  Experi- 
ment Station,  who  conducted  their  investigations  during 
twelve  seasons.  In  these  investigations  the  timothy  was 
cut  at  five  stages;  namely,  coming  into  blossom,  full 
bloom,  seed  formed,  seed  in  dough  and  seed  ripe.  Their 
findings  may  be  thus  summarized  :  — 

The  total  yield  of  dry  matter  is  on  the  average  greatest 
in  the  hay  at  the  time  the  seed  is  just  formed.  This  was 
the  case  three  seasons  out  of  four,  the  yield  being  greatest 
at  full  bloom  the  second  season. 

The  total  amount  each  of  protein,  ether  extract  and 
ash  per  acre  was  greatest  in  the  hay  cut  at  full  bloom ; 
of  nitrogen-free  extract  when  the  seed  was  in  the  dough 
stage  ;  of  crude  fiber  when  the  seed  was.  just  formed. 

The  loss  of  dry  matter  and  perhaps  of  other  substances 
as  the  plants  approach  maturity  is  due  partly  to  the  storage 
of  material  by  the  bulbs,  partly  to  loss  of  leaves  by  drying 
and  breaking  off,  especially  the  lower  ones,  and  partly 
by  the  solvent  action  of  rain. 


TIMOTHY  137 

The  total  amount  each  of  digestible  protein,  nitrogen- 
free  extract,  crude  fiber  and  ash  is  greatest  at  time  of 
full  bloom ;  of  ether  extract  when  the  seed  is  in  the  dough. 

The  digestibility  of  the  hay  is  greatest  in  the  youngest 
stages  and  gradually  decreases  in  the  later  cuttings.  This 
is  also  true  of  the  protein  and  the  crude  fiber,  but  is  less 
marked  in  the  nitrogen-free  extract. 

Yearling  steers  fed  only  on  timothy  showed  a  marked 
preference  to  the  hays  cut  at  the  younger  stages,  eating 
the  first  three  cuttings  before  they  would  touch  the  others. 
Other  cattle  fed  liberally  on  grain  and  silage  did  not  show 
a  decided  preference,  as  was  also  the  case  with  well-fed 
sheep. 

Timothy  cut  young  is  more  difficult  to  cure  and  more 
easily  damaged  by  weather. 

At  the  time  when  timothy  is  in  full  bloom,  other  farm 
operations,  especially  the  cultivation  of  corn,  are  impera- 
tive. 

Early  cutting  is  thought  to  weaken  the  bulbs  and  to 
lessen  the  next  year's  crop. 

Morse  at  the  New  Hampshire  Experiment  Station 
studied  timothy  cut  every  five  days  from  June  4  to  July  3L 
The  conclusions  were  as  follows  :  — 

"Timothy  grass  grows  very  rapidly  until  the  blossoms  appear. 
Its  fastest  growth  is  between  the  appearance  of  the  head  and  the 
beginning  of  the  bloom. 

"The  amount  of  grass  per  acre  increases  until  the  time  of 
blossoming.  It  then  decreases.  The  decrease  is  due  to  loss  of 
water. 

"Dry  substance  steadily  increases  until  the  plant  forms  seed. 

"The  young  grass  is  richest  in  fat  and  protein.  The  mature 
grass  is  richest  in  carbohydrates  or  fiber  and  nitrogen-free  extract. 

"Timothy  yields  the  largest  amount  of  digestible  protein  when 
cut  at  the  beginning  of  bloom. 


138 


FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 


"The  total  amount  of  digestible  matter  is  largest  when  the 
grass  has  passed  out  of  blossom,  or  gone  to  seed." 

TABLE  SHOWING   RELATION   BETWEEN  TIME   OF   CUTTING   AND 
YIELD  IN  POUNDS  OF  TIMOTHY 


STAGE  WHEN  CUT 

ILLINOIS1 

MISSOURI2 
AVE.  OF 
5   YR8. 

CONNECT- 
ICUT3 

PENNSYL- 
VANIA4 

MAINE  5 

Water- 
free 

Water- 
free 

Water- 
free 

Water- 
free 

Hay 

Well  headed  .... 
Coming  into  bloom 
Full  bloom     .... 
Anthers  half  fallen 
Out  of  bloom      .     .     . 
Seed  formed        .     .     . 
Seed  in  dough    . 
Late  cut         .... 
Seed  nearly  ripe 
Seed  ripe        .... 

2749 

3411 
3964 

3287 

3423 

3301 

2586 

4225 

3117 

4089 
4038 

4012 

5086 

4064 

3616 

3064 

3747 

123.  Yields.  —  The  average  yield  of  timothy  hay  per 
acre,  according  to  the  Thirteenth  United  States  Census, 
was  in  tons  per  acre  for  the  various  divisions  as  follows : 
New  England,  1.12;  Middle  Atlantic,  1.09;  East  North 
Central,  1.26;  West  North  Central,  0.97;  Mountain, 
1.48;  Pacific,  1.62;  and  for  the  whole  United  States,  1.22 
tons.  In  the  Canadian  Census  special  data  for  timothy 
are  not  reported. 

Different  experiment  stations  have  reported  yields 
of  timothy  in  pounds  to  the  acre,  as  follows  :  Ohio,  3497 ; 

1  Illinois  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  5. 

2  Proc.  Soc.  Prom.  Agr.  Sci.  1910,  p.  75. 

3  Conn.  State  Board  Agr.,  12th  An.  Rep.  1878-9. 

4  Penn.  State  College,  An.  Rep.  1886,  p.  273. 

5  Maine  Exp.  Sta.,  An.  Rep.  1890,  p.  65. 


TIMOTHY  139 

Pennsylvania,  3344;  Kansas,  5528;  Illinois,  4400; 
Michigan,  3466;  Minnesota,  4340;  Utah,  2045;  North 
Carolina,  2136;  North  Dakota,  2470;  Cornell,  without 
fertilizers,  2000  to  3600,  with  fertilizers,  up  to  a  maximum 
of  8940. 

Good  yields  of  timothy  average  about  2  tons  to  the 
acre;  maximum  yields  may  reach  4J  tons  an  acre,  but 
such  are  secured  only  by  heavy  fertilizing  or  on  rich 
irrigated  lands  in  the  Northwest. 

European  yields  for  the  acre  are  recorded  as  follows : 
Vianne  in  France,  5280  to  13,200  pounds;  Sinclair  in 
England,  17,356  to  19,398  pounds ;  Werner  in  Germany, 
5280  to  6160  pounds  ;  Pinckert  in  Germany,  4050  pounds ; 
Sprengel  in  Germany,  3520  to  4400  pounds.  The  yields 
of  Sinclair  are  based  on  very  small  plots  and  cannot  be 
realized  on  a  field  scale. 

124.  Pasture.  —  Timothy  alone  is  not  well  adapted 
to  permanent  pastures,  but  is  a  useful  element  in  most 
mixtures.  Most  of  it  will  disappear  in  about  three  years. 
For  temporary  pastures,  however,  it  forms  an  important 
element. 

The  pasturing  of  timothy  meadows  in  fall  and  even  in 
spring  is  a  very  general  practice,  both  in  the  East  and  on 
irrigated  lands  in  the  West.  It  is  very  doubtful,  however, 
if  the  practice  is  a  wise  one.  The  bulbs  of  timothy  are 
easily  injured  by  the  close  pasturing  of  sheep  and  by  the 
trampling  of  larger  animals. 

At  the  Utah  Experiment  Station  some  data  were  se- 
cured to  show  this  effect.  On  three  plots  of  f  acre  each 
the  yields  in  1892  were  respectively  6633,  6960  and  7333 
pounds  per  acre.  The  first  plot  was  grazed  by  18  head 
of  cattle  May  16,  1893 ;  the  second  was  left  ungrazed ; 
while  the  third  was  grazed  by  two  heifers  for  two  weeks, 


140        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR    CULTURE 

November  8-22,  1892.  The  1893  yields  to  the  acre  were 
respectively  2933,  5107  and  4800  pounds.  Spring  grazing 
thus  proved  markedly  injurious,  while  light  fall  grazing 
was  much  less  so. 

125.  Pollination.  —  The  pollen  of  timothy  is  very  light, 
and  with  a  scarcely  perceptible  air  movement  will  float 
12  feet  or  more.     The  grass  is  normally  anemophilous  — 
that  is,  pollinated  by  wind  —  as  indicated  by  the  large 
feathery  stigmas  and  light  pollen. 

According  to  Hopkins's  observations  in  West  Virginia, 
timothy  flowers  begin  to  bloom  10  to  15  days  after  the 
tip  of  the  spike  is  visible.  On  each  spike  the  blooming 
period  extends  from  7  to  12  days.  The  flowers  open  as 
a  rule  early  in  the  morning  and  the  stigma  is  exserted  at 
the  time  the  anthers  open,  so  that  self-pollination  may 
easily  occur. 

No  observations  are  recorded  as  to  whether  an  in- 
dividual flower  is  self -fertile  or  not.  Some  seed  may  be 
produced,  however,  by  bagging  a  single  head  or  all  the 
heads  of  a  single  plant. 

126.  Seed-production.  —  Timothy   is   one   of  the  most 
reliable  grasses  for  seed-production.     The  grass  is  usually 
cut  with  a  grain  binder  and  the  bundles  put  in  small 
shocks  and  allowed  to  cure  for  a  week  or  more.     Thrash- 
ing is  done  by  a  grain  separator,  but  special  sieves  are 
necessary.     The   average  yield  of  seed  is  stated  to  be 
about  7  bushels  an  acre  and  the  maximum  12  bushels. 

Some  loss  from  shattering  will  occur  if  the  seed  be 
allowed  to  become  overripe.  Showery  weather  causes 
the  glumes,  by  opening  and  closing,  to  become  looser,  so 
that  in  thrashing  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  seed 
becomes  freed  from  the  glumes. 

The  principal  seed-producing  states  in  the  order  of  total 


TIMOTHY  141 

yield  are  Illinois,  Iowa,  Minnesota,  South  Dakota,  Kansas, 
Ohio. 

In  Europe  some  surplus  seed  is  grown  in  Germany  and 
in  Austria.  Werner  gives  the  German  yield  at  500  to 
800  kg.  to  the  hectare.  Michalowski  at  Hohenheim  from 
fall  sowings  obtained  244  kg.  the  first  year  and  554  kg. 
the  second  year  to  the  hectare.  From  a  spring  sowing  the 
seed  yield  the  second  year  was  567  kg.  the  hectare. 

The  date  of  harvesting  influences  the  weight  of  seed 
obtained.  Thus  Dorph-Petersen  in  Denmark  harvested 
from  plots  at  intervals  of  3  days,  the  yields  being  at  the 
rate  respectively  of  303,  346,  360  and  414  kg.  the  hectare. 

127.  Life  history.  —  If  a  seedling  of  timothy  is  care- 
fully examined,  a  small  bud,  the  beginning  of  a.  corm  or 
bulb,  will  be  found  in  the  axil  at  the  base  of  each  of  the 
leaves.  The  basal  internodes  are  very  short  until  the  one 
is  reached  which  becomes  the  primary  corm.  The  smaller 
axillary  corms  below  develop  later  and  give  the  false 
appearance  of  having  arisen  from  the  base  of  the  pri- 
mary bulb.  A  single  seedling  may  have  during  the 
first  year  8  to  18  corms  and  shoots,  each  with  a  more  or 
less  well-developed  corm,  from  the  base  of  which  roots  are 
produced.  Under  field  conditions  all  of  these  shoots  do 
not  survive,  as  crowding  and  other  conditions  prevent 
the  weaker  ones  from  securing  enough  nourishment. 
Where  the  plants  are  isolated,  most  of  the  shoots  will 
head  at  approximately  the  same  height,  but  if  the  plants 
are  crowded  and  the  nourishment  is  insufficient,  the  weaker 
shoots  head  when  much  smaller  than  the  others.  A 
timothy  shoot  heads  but  once,  and  then  dies,  including 
the  corm.  Before  the  latter  dies,  however,  a  new  lateral 
bulb  is  usually  developed  from  its  base,  or  if  the  corm  is 
double  from  the  base  of  each  joint.  Normally  the  shoot 


142         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIE   CULTURE 


develops  and  heads  the  season  after  the. bulb  is  formed, 
but  spring-sown  plants  may  come  to  bloom  the  same  season. 

After  a  crop  of  hay  has  been  cut,  the  stronger  basal 
shoots  will  under  favorable  conditions  develop  and  pro- 
duce heads.  Thus,  while  the  plant  is  a  perennial,  each 
shoot  behaves  much  like  an  annual. 

128.  Life  period.  —  Few  data  seem  to  have  been  re- 
corded as  to  the  length  of  life  of  individual  timothy  plants, 
and  none  as  to  the  maximum  length.  It  is  known,  how- 
ever, that  many  plants  endure  as  long  as  six  years  and 
probably  much  longer.  In  meadows  it  is  generally  agreed 
that  the  yields  are  best  in  the  second  and  third  years,  and 
thereafter  gradually  decline. 

Stebler  in  Switzerland  planted  two  areas  with  a  mixture 
of  grass  seeds  containing  15  per  cent  timothy,  in  one  case 
American  seed,  in  the  other  German.  The  percentage 
of  timothy  plants  was  determined  for  each  year  for  the 
eight  years  following,  with  the  following  results :  — 


1904 

1905 

1906 

1907 

1908 

1909 

1910 

1911 

American 

61.7 

39.8 

15.7 

20.0 

12.9 

5.0 

5.0 

5.0 

German 

67.5 

51.6 

60.2 

41.4 

37.4 

26.7 

17.0 

12.8 

From  these  results  the  American  strain  seems  to  be 
less  long-lived.  This  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  in 
America,  timothy  is  usually  allowed  to  lay  but  two  years, 
so  that  short-lived  individuals  are  not  eliminated. 

129.  Depth  of  root  system.  —  The  depth  to  which 
timothy  roots  extend  is  not  great.  Ten  Eyck  at  the 
North  Dakota  Experiment  Station  found  that  they  did 
not  reach  three  feet, 


TIMOTHY  143 

130.  Proportion    of   roots    to    tops.  —  Several    investi- 
gators have  secured  data  on  the  relative  amount  of  roots 
in  timothy,  from  which  it  appears  that  the  roots  do  not 
weigh  more  than  half  as  much  as  the  tops. 

At  the  Storrs,  Connecticut,  Experiment  Station,  Woods 
determined  the  dry  weight  of  roots  in  an  area  2  feet 
square  for  each  6  inches  in  depth.  From  these  data  the 
weight  to  the  acre  for  each  6  inches  was  calculated  as  fol- 
lows in  pounds  :  2170,  274,  58, 14  or  a  total  of  2516  pounds. 
The  dry  weight  of  the  tops  similarly  calculated  was  5027 
pounds. 

At  the  Utah  Experiment  Station  the  dry  weight  of 
timothy  roots  was  determined  in  an  area  2  feet  square 
for  each  inch  of  depth.  On  this  basis  the  weight  of  roots 
per  acre  was  for  each  inch  of  depth  as  follows,  the  weights 
being  given  in  pounds:  541.7;  279.8;  116.9;  103.9; 
86.8;  38.4;  24.0;  26.9;  29.9;  24.0;  16.6;  12.0.  The 
total  acre  weight  in  the  12  inches  was  1303.9  pounds. 

At  the  Arkansas  Experiment  Station  Bennett  and  Irby 
determined  the  weight  of  roots  to  tops  to  be  as  83 :  100. 
Fifty  per  cent  of  the  roots  were  in  the  top  4  inches,  95 
per  cent  in  the  top  6  inches  and  practically  none  ex- 
tended deeper  than  12  inches. 

131.  Regional  strains.  —  In  Switzerland,  Stebler  and 
Volkart  report  a  number  of  investigations  to  determine 
the  relative  yielding  capacity  of  seeds  from  different  sources. 
In  one  small  plot  test  lasting  four  years  the  average  yield 
of  timothy  from  Saxony  was  25  per  cent  greater  than  that 
from  America.     The  American  timothy  showed  a  much 
greater  reduction  of  yield  after  the  first  two  years.     In 
both  cases  the  timothy  was  mixed  with  the  same  per  cent 
of  red  clover. 

In   another  test  of  5  years,  the  average  yields  of  4 


144        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

strains  in  plots  of  50  square  meters  was  as  follows  :  Pom- 
erania,  116.6  kg.;  Saxony,  112.6  kg.;  America,  111.8 
kg. ;  and  Mahren  (Moravia),  107.4  kg.  The  differences 
are  not  significant. 

The  trials  of  the  Landwirtschaftsgesellschaft  in  Ger- 
many gave  the  following  yields  a  hectare  in  kilograms : 
Finland  I,  4528;  Canada,  4500;  United  States,  4395; 
Saxony,  4022;  Finland  II,  3974;  'Galicia,  3878;  East 
Prussia,  3767 ;  Moravia,  3700. 

Definite  conclusions  can  scarcely  be  drawn  from  the 
above  limited  data. 

132.  Feeding  value.  —  There  are  comparatively  few 
feeding  experiments  reported  by  which  the  feeding  value 
of  timothy  can  be  compared  with  other  hays. 

Experiments  at  the  Mississippi  Experiment  Station  in- 
dicate that  its  feeding  value  for  working  mules  and  for 
dairy  cows  is  practically  identical  with  that  of  Bermuda- 
grass  hay. 

At  the  Utah  Experiment  Station  the  conclusion  was 
reached  that  wild  hay  was  more  valuable  pound  for  pound 
in  feeding  both  sheep  and  cattle  than  was  timothy  hay. 

Haecker  in  two  series  of  experiments  at  the  Minnesota 
Experiment  Station  finds  that  prairie  hay  and  timothy 
have  equal  feeding  value  for  dairy  cows. 

At  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station  alfalfa  was  compared 
to  timothy  in  a  ration  fed  to  dairy  cows.  Each  of  the  16 
cows  produced  considerably  more  milk  when  on  the  alfalfa 
ration  than  when  on  the  timothy  ration,  the  increase  on 
the  average  being  17.7  per  cent. 

At  the  same  experiment  station,  timothy  and  alfalfa 
were  compared  for  work  horses,  and  the  conclusion  was 
reached  that  with  alfalfa  less  grain  is  required  to  prevent 
them  from  losing  weight  than  where  timothy  is  fed.  In 


TIMOTHY  145 

this  experiment  the  saving  in  grain  was  22  per  cent  in 
favor  of  the  alfalfa. 

At  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station  red  clover  hay  was 
found  much  more  efficient  than  timothy  hay  in  fattening 
steers  when  both  were  fed  with  grain  corn.  The  ad- 
vantages that  the  use  of  clover  hay  has  over  the  timothy 
in  fattening  steers  are  that  it  improves  the  appetite,  keeps 
the  digestive  system  in  good  condition,  improves  the 
appearance  of  the  coat,  causes  the  steers  to  make  more 
rapid  gains,  produces  a  pound  of  gain  at  less  expense, 
and  results  in  a  higher  finish  and  a  corresponding  increase 
in  the  value  per  hundred  of  the  finished  steer. 

At  the  same  station  timothy  hay  was  compared  with 
red  clover  hay  for  fattening  lambs.  As  a  result  of  one 
direct  comparison,  timothy  was  found  far  inferior.  When 
fed  with  corn  alone,  the  effect  of  the  timothy  on  the  thrift 
of  the  lambs  was  harmful. 

Two  feeding  tests  of  timothy  in  comparison  with  red 
clover  hay  for  horses  have  been  conducted  at  the  Illinois 
Experiment  Station.  From  the  first  test  the  conclusion 
was  reached  that  clover  hay  when  fed  with  a  mixed  grain 
ration  is  more  efficient  for  producing  gains  than  timothy 
hay.  In  this  test  clover  hay  produced  58  per  cent  more 
gain  in  weight  than  did  timothy. 

In  the  second  experiment  both  hays  were  compared  on 
work  horses.  The  data  indicate  that  there  is  but  little 
difference  in  the  value  of  the  two  when  fed  in  conjunction 
with  mixed  grains  consisting  of  corn,  oats,  oil  meal  and 
bran.  The  horses  fed  the  clover  hay  had,  however, 
glossier  coats  of  hair.  The  laxative  effect  of  the  clover 
was  evident,  but  not  to  an  objectionable  degree. 

In  a  feeding  experiment  with  6  steers  at  the  Maine 
Experiment  Station  the  animals  were  fed  for  28  days  with 


146         FOE  AGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIE   CULTURE 

timothy  hay  cut  when  in  bloom  and  for  41  days  with 
timothy  hay  cut  17  days  after  bloom.  In  the  first  period 
the  steers  gained  1.47  pounds  per  diem  and  in  the  second 
period  1.49  pounds  per  diem. 

133.  Injurious  insects.  —  Timothy  is  not  much  subject 
to  insect  injury,  but  a  few  species  may  at  times  do  con- 
siderable damage. 

Bill-bug  (Sphenophorus  zece) .  —  The  larva  of  this  weevil 
burrows  into  the  bulbs  of  timothy  and  feeds  on  the  in- 
terior, thus  weakening  the  culm.  In  Illinois  Forbes  found 
50  to  75  per  cent  of  the  bulbs  infested  or  injured  in  fields 
three  or  four  years  old,  and  10  to  20  per  cent  in  fields  two 
years  old.  Hopkins  expresses  the  opinion  that  the  bill- 
bug  is  one  of  the  prime  causes  of  early  failure  of  timothy 
meadows  in  West  Virginia,  and  suggests  as  a  remedy  that 
the  stubble  be  fertilized  with  stable  manure,  tobacco  dust 
or  lime  immediately  after  hay  harvest.  As  the  same 
insect  attacks  corn,  the  timothy  sod  should,  if  possible, 
be  plowed  in  winter  to  destroy  as  many  of  the  insects  as 
possible. 

Joint-worm  (Isosoma  sp.). — The  larva  of  this  insect 
infests  the  stems  of  timothy,  never  more  than  a  single 
larva  in  a  culm.  As  a  result  of  the  injury  it  causes  the 
head  and  upper  portion  of  the  stem  to  die  prematurely. 
The  dead  spikes  conspicuously  reveal  the  work  of  this 
insect.  Where  abundant  it  may  reduce  the  hay  yielded 
10  to  20  per  cent. 

134.  Diseases.  —  Timothy    is    affected    by    but    few 
fungous  diseases  that  cause  damage  worthy  of  notice. 

Timothy  rust  (Puccinia  phlei-pratensis)  occurs  in 
nearly  all  states  east  of  the  Mississippi,  and  in  Minnesota 
and  Iowa.  It  caused  serious  injury  in  timothy  breeding 
plots  at  Arlington  Farm,  Virginia,  in  1906,  where  someselec- 


TIMOTHY  147 

tions  were  totally  destroyed.  It  closely  resembles  wheat 
rust  and  attacks  both  the  leaves  and  culms.  The  fungus 
lives  over  winter  on  timothy  in  Virginia.  Farther  north- 
ward teleutospores  are  abundantly  produced.  The  rust 
has  been  artificially  transferred  to  oats,  rye,  tall  fescue, 
orchard-grass  and  Canada  blue-grass,  but  wheat  and  barley 
seem  immune. 

In  fields  of  timothy  the  rust  seems  never  to  be  abundant, 
and  no  injury  worth  while  has  been  reported.  On  the 
other  hand,  wayside  isolated  plants  are  often  covered  with 
pustules,  and  apparently  more  so  southward.  The  cup- 
fungus  (a3cidial)  stage  of  this  rust  is  not  known.  Experi- 
ments in  inoculating  barberry  plants,  the  secidial  host  of 
the  wheat  rust,  have  been  ineffective. 

Another  disease  which  sometimes  attacks  timothy  as 
well  as  other  grasses  is  a  leaf  smut  (  Ustilago  striceformis) . 
It  causes  dark  thickened  lines  on  the  leaf  blades  and 
sheaths,  which  later  burst  open  and  become  dusty  from 
the  spores.  This  fungus  is  rather  widespread,  and  has 
been  reported  as  damaging  timothy  in  Wisconsin  and  in 
Illinois.  Severely  attacked  plants  do  not  form  heads. 

135.  Variability.  —  Timothy  is  a  very  variable  grass, 
as  may  easily  be  seen  by  examining  individual  plants  where 
they  are  growing  scattered  so  as  to  permit  the  full  develop- 
ment of  each.  Some  of  the  more  marked  varieties  have 
received  names  at  the  hands  of  botanists.  Hays  at  the 
Minnesota  Experiment  Station  referred  to  a  number  of 
the  commoner  variations  in  1889,  and  Hopkins  at  the 
West  Virginia  Experiment  Station  published  more  com- 
plete studies  in  1894. 

Clark  has  made  a  very  full  study  of  the  variations  ob- 
served in  3505  isolated  plants  in  the  breeding  nursery  at 
Cornell  University  Experiment  Station.  Some  of  the 


148        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR    CULTURE 

variations  observed  by  him  may  be  thus  briefly  sum- 
marized :  — 

The  leaves  vary  from  4  to  15  inches  in  length,  and  are 
from  .25  to  .75  inch  broad.  They  may  be  flat  or  con- 
cave or  loosely  twisted;  spreading,  drooping,  or  nearly 
erect.  The  number  to  the  culm  ranges  from  3  to  8. 

The  stems  are  usually  green,  rarely  reddish  or  bluish, 
18  to  55  inches  tall,  .05  to  .15  inch  in  diameter,  erect 
to  decumbent.  The  nodes  are  usually  brown,  but  vary  to 
green. 

The  heads  are  normally  cylindrical,  with  a  rounded 
or  abruptly  pointed  tip,  but  on  some  plants  they  have 
a  long  tapering  apex  or  a  tapering  base,  or  both.  They 
vary  in  length  from  1  to  12  inches ;  in  diameter,  from  .2  to 
.4  inch ;  in  color  they  are  usually  green,  sometimes  purple. 

The  blooming  period  of  the  earliest  individuals  was 
18  days  earlier  than  the  latest  ones  in  1907.  This  differ- 
ence doubtless  fluctuates  according  to  the  season,  being 
lengthened  by  cool  weather  and  shortened  by  warm 
weather. 

The  life  period  probably  varies  greatly.  Some  in- 
dividuals are  apparently  annual,  and  others  survived  only 
two  years.  Most  of  the  plants  were  still  vigorous  at  the 
end  of  nearly  six  years. 

The  vigor  of  individuals  varies  greatly. 

The  number  of  culms  per  plant  ranges  from  a  few  up  to 
280. 

The  yield  of  hay  to  the  plant  ranges  from  .01  pound  to 
1.35  pounds. 

The  only  positive  correlation  found  was  that  between 
weight  and  height. 

136.  Disease  resistance.  —  The  most  serious  disease 
that  has  affected  timothy  in  America  is  rust.  At  Arlington 


TIMOTHY  149 

Farm,  Virginia,  in  1906,  this  disease  completely  destroyed 
some  of  the  selected  strains,  while  others  were  but  slightly 
affected.  None  were  wholly  immune.  The  relative  re- 
sistance of  these  plants  was  much  the  same  in  1908  and 
in  1909,  but  in  the  latter  year  the  rust  was  far  more 
abundant.  Inoculation  experiments  in  the  greenhouse 
showed  that  all  plants  could  be  inoculated,  but  that  there 
was  great  difference  in  the  degree  to  which  the  fungus 
developed  in  different  individuals. 

Clark  at  the  Cornell  Experiment  Station  has  also 
recorded  the  marked  variability  in  the  susceptibility  of 
different  timothy  plants  to  rust. 

137.  Breeding.  —  The  first  serious  attempt  made  to 
select  the  superior  individuals  from  timothy  and  thus 
to  secure  improved  strains  was  by  Hopkins,  of  the  West 
Virginia  Experiment  Station,  in  1893.  Among  the  best 
of  the  strains  selected  by  Hopkins  were  the  Stewart, 
a  tall  leafy  form  especially  adapted  to  hay  production; 
the  Pasture,  the  progeny  of  a  plant  found  surviving  in  an 
old,  much  overgrazed  pasture,  and  conspicuous  for  the 
amount  of  aftermath  which  it  produced ;  and  the  Early 
or  Hopkins  variety,  which  matured  two  weeks  earlier  than 
any  other.  At  the  West  Virginia  station,  where  these 
varieties  were  selected,  they  were  found  to  be  distinctly 
superior  to  ordinary  mixed  timothy.  These  varieties  were 
secured  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
in  1902,  and  large  quantities  of  seed  of  these  three  varieties 
were  grown.  The  Early  remained  nearly  pure,  as  it  came 
to  maturity  before  other  varieties  of  timothy  were  in 
bloom.  The  other  two  varieties,  however,  became  some- 
what mixed,  but  their  main  characteristics  remained 
evident.  These  three  varieties  were  tried  out  on  a  farm 
scale  in  various  parts  of  the  United  States,  but  the  results 


150        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 

were  on  the  whole  disappointing,  as  when  taken  to  new 
localities  these  timothies  were  little,  if  any,  superior  to 
ordinary  mixed  timothy.  In  Virginia,  they  were  all 
found  severely  subject  to  timothy  rust,  a  disease  which 
had  become  prevalent  about  this  time,  and  which  in- 
troduced a  new  factor  into  timothy  breeding.  The 
breeding  work  inaugurated  by  Hopkins  has  been  con- 
tinued by  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  first  in  Virginia, 
and  now  on  a  special  station  in  Ohio.  In  1903,  breeding 
work  was  undertaken  at  the  Cornell  Experiment  Station, 
and  about  the  same  time  at  the  Minnesota  Experiment 
Station.  Some  of  the  best  of  the  Cornell  selections  proved 
decidedly  inferior  in  comparison  with  the  Hopkins  timothies 
in  Virginia,  and  the  reverse  of  this  was  the  case  when  they 
were  planted  side  by  side  at  the  Cornell  Station.  On  the 
whole,  the  evidence  indicates  that  the  bred  varieties  of 
timothy  will  have  a  comparatively  narrow  adaptation. 
The  best  results  are  to  be  expected  in  breeding  timothy 
for  each  locality.  Beginning  in  1905,  the  breeding  of 
timothy  has  also  been  undertaken  at  Svalof,  Sweden  and 
other  places  in  Europe. 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  breeding  of  timothy 
will  be  advantageous.  Such  breeding,  however,  will 
necessarily  have  to  be  continuous,  as  timothy,  like  corn, 
is  almost  impossible  to  keep  pure.  Similar  methods  to 
those  used  in  corn  breeding  can  very  well  be  used  in 
connection  with  timothy  breeding. 

138.  Methods  of  breeding.  —  Webber  recommends 
on  the  basis  of  the  experience  at  the  Cornell  Experiment 
Station  the  following  plan  of  conducting  timothy  breeding, 
beginning  with  the  selected  individual  plant.  These 
methods  differ  but  little  from  those  which  were  employed 
by  Hopkins. 


TIMOTHY  151 

1.  The  selected  plant  is  propagated  vegetatively  by 
digging  up  and  separating  the  bulbs  that  are  formed  in  the 
stooling  of  the  plant.     These  are  taken  in  early  September 
and  a  row  of  sixteen  to  twenty-four  plants  grown.     These 
plants,  it  will  be  understood,  are  only  transplanted  parts 
of    the    same    individual.     From    such    propagation    the 
character  of  the  individual  can  be  judged  better  and  a 
more  nearly  correct  idea  can  be  obtained  of  the  yielding 
capacity  of  the  plant  as  well  as  of  other  characters. 

2.  Inbred  seed  is  sown  carefully  in  sterilized  soil  and 
the  seedlings  transplanted  in  rows  in  field  plats  as  above 
described,  in  order  to  test  the  transmission  of  the  char- 
acters for  which  the  plants  were  selected. 

3.  As  soon  as  sufficient  seed  can  be  obtained,  plats  are 
sown  broadcast  in  the  usual  way  in  order  to  test  the  yield 
under  ordinary  field  conditions. 

4.  As  soon  as  a  variety  is  known  or  believed  to  be  valu- 
able, isolated  plats  are  planted  from  inbred  seed  in  order 
to  obtain  seed  for  planting  larger  areas  that  will  finally 
give  sufficient  quantities  of  seed  for  distribution. 

139.  Desirable  types  of  improved  timothies.  —  The 
main  object  sought  in  breeding  timothy  is  to  secure 
varieties  that  will  give  increased  hay  yield.  Hopkins 
also  developed  an  early  strain  that  could  be  harvested  ten 
days  earlier  than  the  ordinary,  and  which  on  account  of 
its  earliness  did  not  cross  much  with  other  strains.  He 
also  endeavored  to  secure  a  variety  that  would  withstand 
heavy  pasturing,  using  as  the  basis  a  plant  that  had  sur- 
vived several  years  in  a  closely  grazed  field.  Another 
type  was  distinguished  by  the  fact  that  its  stems  remained 
green  when  the  seed  was  ripe,  producing  presumably  a 
straw  with  greater  feeding  value. 

Webber  at  the  Cornell  Experiment  Station  has  sought 


152         FOE  AGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 

to  select  early,  medium  and  late  varieties,  each  with  the 
following  combination  of  characters  :  — 

1.  Highest  yield;  2.  tall  growth;  3.  good  stooling 
capacity;  4.  culms  numerous  and  dense;  5.  erect, 
without  tendency  to  lodge;  6.  numerous  large  leaves; 
7.  culms  leafy  to  near  the  top ;  8.  tendency  to  remain 
green  late ;  9.  rust  resistance  in  high  degree ;  10.  heads 
medium  sized  and  bearing  abundant  good  seed. 

140.  Comparison  of  vegetative  and  seed  progeny. — 
When  timothy  is  propagated  vegetatively,  the  progeny 
are  identical,  at  least  in  the  great  majority  of  cases.  When, 
however,  the  seed  of  a  single  plant  is  sown,  the  offspring 
show  considerable  diversity.  Webber  has  compared 
the  average  yield  of  selected  plants  with  that  of  their 
descendants  grown  both  clonally  or  vegetatively  and  from 
seed.  In  the  latter  case  some  of  the  plants  were  grown 
from  open-fertilized  and  others  from  self-fertilized  seed. 
The  average  yield  to  the  plant  for  all  types  tested  was  as 
follows :  original  plants,  9.307  ounces ;  clons  or  vegeta- 
tive offspring,  8.769  ounces;  open-fertilized  seed  6.963 
ounces ;  self-fertilized  seed,  5.243  ounces.  These  data 
seem  to  indicate  that  self-fertilization  tends  to  reduce 
vigor. 

In  another  series  of  investigations  the  yield  of  clonal 
individuals  was  compared  to  that-  of  seedlings  from  the 
same  parent.  In  all  cases  the  seed-propagated  plant 
yielded  less  than  the  corresponding  clon.  A  comparison 
of  the  average  yields,  however,  shows  that  as  the  yield 
of  the  clons  of  an  individual  was  high  or  low,  so  was  its 
corresponding  progeny  produced  from  inbred  seed.  The 
increase  in  yield,  however,  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest 
was  relatively  much  less  in  the  seed-propagated  plants 
than  in  the  clons. 


TIMOTHY 


153 


141.  Field  trials  with  improved  strains.  —  At  the  Cor- 
nell Experiment  Station  17  improved  strains  were  com- 
pared in  field  plots  with  commercial  timothy.  In  the 
first  season,  1910,  all  but  three  of  the  selected  strains  out- 
yielded  the  check  plots  grown  from  commercial  seed; 
the  second  season,  1911,  all  of  the  selected  strains  out- 
yielded  the  checks.  The  data  secured  were  thus  sum- 
marized :  — 


1910 

1911 

Average    yield 

sorts) 

(17    new 

7451  Ib.  an  acre 

6600  Ib.  an  acre 
851  Ib.  an  acre 

7153  Ib.  an  acre 

4091  Ib.  an  acre 
3062  Ib.  an  acre 

Average    yield 
cial  seed) 

(commer- 

Average  increase 

CHAPTER  VIII 

BLUE-GRASSES,  MEADOW-GRASSES  AND 
RED TOP 

ALL  the  different  species  called  blue-grass,  and  most  of 
those  called  meadow-grass,  belong  to  the  genus  Poa,  for 
which  some  early  writers  used  the  English  equivalent  poe, 
now  practically  obsolete.  All  of  the  cultivated  poas  are 
much  alike  agriculturally,  being  especially  useful  for 
pastures. 

Redtop  and  related  species  of  bent-grass  (Agrostis)  are 
botanically  quite  remote  from  the  Poas,  but  agriculturally 
very  similar.  Redtop  itself  is  perhaps  equally  valuable 
for  pasturage  and  for  hay. 

THE   BLUE-GRASSES 

142.  Kentucky     blue-grass     (Poa     pratensis).  —  Ken- 
tucky blue-grass  is  also  known  as  June-grass,  or  simply 
as  blue-grass.     It  has  been  called  smooth-stalked  meadow- 
grass  to  distinguish  it  from  rough-stalked  meadow-grass 
(Poa  trivialis).     In  Virginia  it  was  formerly  known  as 
greensward.     The  name  of  Kentucky  is  used  as  a  prefix 
partly  because  of  the  famous  blue-grass  lands  of  that 
state,   and  partly  to    distinguish  it  from  Canada  blue- 
grass.     The    narrow-leaved    variety   of    blue-grass    was 
formerly  known  as  "  bird  grass." 

143.  Botany.  —  Poa  pratensis,  in  its  ordinary  cultivated 
form,  is  quite  certainly  not  native  to  North  America. 
Endemic  varieties  do  occur,  however,  from  Alaska  south- 

154 


BLUE-GRASSES 


155 


ward  to  British  Columbia,  in  Labrador,  and  probably  on 
the  coast  of  New  England.  The  Alaska  and  Labrador  forms 
are  apparently  distinct  from  any  Old  World  varieties,  but 
have  not  received  dis- 
tinctive names.  A  dwarf 
form  on  the  New  Eng- 
land seacoast  is  appar- 
ently identical  with  var. 
costata  Hartm.  found  on 
European  seacoasts. 

European  botanists 
have  described  many 
varieties,  as  the  species 
group  is  highly  variable. 
Even  the  cultivated 
forms  occurring  in 
America,  which  consist 
wholly  or  mainly  of  the 
typical  form  and  of  the 
narrow-leaved  variety 
angustifolia,  give  by  se- 
lection a  long  series  of 
distinguishable  strains. 
There  are  possibilities 
in  some  of  these  forms 
of  Kentucky  blue-grass 
that  may  in  the  future 


warrant  their  selection 


FIG.  12.  —  Kentucky  blue-grass  (Poa 
pratensis).    a,  spikelet;  b,  lemma  show- 


and    Culture   for    special    ing  attached  tuft  of  hairs. 

purposes. 

In  the  Old  World,  Poa  pratensis  is  native  over  practi- 
cally all  of  Europe,  the  northern  half  of  Asia  and  in  the 
mountains  of  Algeria  and  Morocco. 


156        FOEAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 


144.  Adaptations.  —  Kentucky  blue-grass  is  adapted 
primarily  to  temperate  regions  of  relatively  high  humidity, 
but  in  the  arid  regions  succeeds  well  under  irrigation.  It 
is  markedly  resistant  to  cold,  never  freezing  out  in  the 
most  severe  winter  weather.  During  summer  heat, 
however,  its  growth  languishes  and,  even  with  abundant 

moisture,  shows  little  vigor 
during  the  hot  weather 
of  July  and  August.  Its 
area  of  usefulness  extends 
farther  south  than  that  of 
timothy,  as  it  survives  hot 
summer  weather  and  makes 
good  pasturage  in  the  fall 

FIG.   13.  — A  spikelet  and  florets     and    Spring.      It    begins 

of  Kentucky  blue-grass,    a,  spikelet    growth  in  the  spring  earlier 

as  it  appears  at  maturity;  b,  the  same  , 

having  the  florets  spread  apart,  show-  tnan  most  grasses,  and  COn- 

ing  jointed  rachilla;  c,  back  view  of  tinUCS  to  grow  as  late  into 

a  floret,  showing  .the  lemma  (1)  ;  d,  , ,       ,.    n                       , , 

front  view  of  the  floret,  showing  the    the  fall  as  any  other  grass. 

edges  of  the  lemma  (1),  the  palet  (2)  Blue-grass    prefers    well- 

and  the  rachilla  segment  (3);  e,  the       ,        .          ,    ,  , 

grain  or  kernel.  drained  loams  or  clay 

loams,  particularly  such  as 

are  rich  in  humus.  Southward  it  is  especially  abundant 
on  limestone  soils,  where  it  often  grows  to  the  exclusion 
of  other  species.  The  famous  blue-grass  regions  of  Ken- 
tucky and  Virginia  are  of  limestone  origin.  On  poor  soils 
it  is  never  abundant,  giving  way  to  other  grasses  like  red- 
top  and  Canada  blue-grass. 

Spillman  has  pointed  out  that  the  distribution  of  blue- 
grass  in  the  East  closely  corresponds  with  that  of  the 
glaciated  soils  and  that  southward  of  this  area  it  is  con- 
fined almost  wholly  to  limestone  soils. 

Blue-grass  will  endure  fairly  wet  soils  but  not  so  well 


BLUE-GRASSES  157 

as  redtop.  It  has  but  little  endurance  to  drought,  but 
even  in  semi-arid  regions,  where  it  is  normally  burnt  brown 
for  two  months  or  more,  it  promptly  recovers  with  the  fall 
rains. 

It  is  only  fairly  well  adapted  to  growing  in  shade,  not 
being  nearly  equal  in  this  respect  to  orchard-grass  or 
red  fescue. 

145.  Importance.  —  Kentucky    blue-grass    is    of    rela- 
tively small  importance  in  Europe,  but  in  North  America 
it  is  by  far  the  most  important  pasture  grass  and  second 
among  grasses  in  total  value  only  to  timothy.      In  the 
timothy  region,  all  of  the  best   pastures  are  wholly  or 
primarily  blue-grass,   and  it  is   likewise  the   commonest 
lawn  grass  in  the  same  area. 

It  is  difficult  to  find  a  satisfactory  explanation  for 
the  great  importance  of  this  grass  and  of  timothy  in 
America.  About  all  that  can  be  said  is  that  these  two 
grasses  are  much  better  adapted  to  the  climatic  con- 
ditions of  cold  winters  and  hot,  rather  dry  summers 
than  are  any  other  European  grasses  used  for  the  same 
purposes. 

Kentucky  blue-grass  differs  from  most  humid  region 
grasses  in  that  the  old  dried  or  half -dried  herbage  is  readily 
eaten  by  animals,  in  this  respect  resembling  some  of  the 
grasses  native  to  arid  regions.  Late  fall  or  winter  pas- 
turage may  thus  be  secured  by  permitting  the  grass  to 
make  considerable  growth  in  the  fall. 

146.  Characteristics.  —  Kentucky  blue-grass  grows  but 
slowly  at  first,  and  even  on  lawns  where  it  is  planted 
thickly,  a  good  sod  is  not  formed  until  the  second  year. 
It  produces  abundant  short  rootstocks,  which  finally  de- 
velop into  upright  shoots.     The  blossoms  appear  earlier 
than  most  other  grasses,  and  blue-grass  is  peculiar  in  that 


158        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR    CULTURE 

it  blooms  but  once  a  year,  no  matter  how  favorable  the 
conditions  may  be  after  cutting.  The  plants  are  very 
long-lived  and  under  favorable  conditions  there  seems  to 
be  no  limit  to  the  time  endurance  of  a  blue-grass  pasture. 
In  the  humid  region  west  of  the  Cascade  Mountains  in 
Oregon,  Washington  and  British  Columbia,  blue-grass 
is  rather  troublesome  as  a  weed,  especially  in  berry  patches 
and  similar  places  that  cannot  be  plowed. 

The  grass  is  very  palatable  to  all  classes  of  live  stock, 
much  more  so  than  any  other  grass  so  capable  of  main- 
taining itself.  It  is  distinctly  exceeded  in  palatability 
only  by  smooth  brome-grass. 

At  the  Kansas  Experiment  Station  the  roots  of  blue- 
grass  on  an  old  sod  were  found  to  penetrate  to  a  depth  of 
four  feet,  but  there  were  comparatively  few  below  18 
inches.  They  are  densest  in  the  top  six  inches. 

147.  Culture.  —  Probably  90  per  cent  of  the  blue- 
grass  pastures  in  America  have  developed  spontaneously. 
On  most  farms  the  untillable  land  is  left  for  pasture,  and 
in  the  timothy  region  this  is  eventually  composed  mainly 
of  blue-grass  with  more  or  less  white  clover  and  redtop. 
On  the  best  blue-grass  soils,  however,  the  returns  are 
profitable  enough  so  that  large  areas  of  tillable  land 
are  kept  permanently  in  pasture. 

No  definite  systems  have  yet  become  established  for 
using  blue-grass  in  rotations,  primarily  because  blue- 
grass  pastures  improve  with  age,  at  least  for  several 
years. 

Where  sown,  the  seed  is  best  planted  in  fall.  A  com- 
mon method  is  to  sow  it  with  timothy  and  clover,  sowing 
the  seed  in  fall  with  the  timothy.  After  two  years  in 
clover  and  timothy  for  hay,  the  land  is  then  pastured  and 
the  blue-grass  finally  occupies  the  land  as  the  timothy 


BLUE-GRASSES  159 

disappears.  Blue-grass  sown  in  this  way  adds  a  little 
bottom  grass  to  the  hay  crop  of  timothy  and  clover. 

The  amount  of  seed  to  use  per  acre,  if  sown  alone,  is 
not  very  definite,  due  partly  to  the  small  extent  to  which 
this  grass  is  sown  and  partly  to  its  very  uncertain  quality. 
Werner  recommends  20  pounds  per  acre ;  Stebler  and 
Schroter  17|  pounds ;  Spillman  25  to  30  pounds.  Hunt 
says  40  pounds  is  the  usual  rate,  but  that  half  this  amount 
of  good  seed  would  probably  suffice.  On  lawns,  much 
greater  quantities  are  desirable,  four  bushels  being  the 
rate  commonly  advised. 

148.  Fertilizers.  —  Blue-grass  yields  so  little,  even  at  its 
maximum,  that  but  few  fertilizer  experiments  have  been 
conducted  on  pastures  or  meadows.  Where  it  is  grown 
on  lawns,  however,  abundant  experience  shows  that 
blue-grass  responds  markedly  to  lime  and  to  nitrogen 
fertilizers. 

At  the  Massachusetts  Experiment  Station  Kentucky 
blue-grass  top-dressed  annually  for  5  years  with  nitrate  of 
soda  was  found  to  be  much  subject  to  rust  and  otherwise 
unsatisfactory.  Another  plot  top-dressed  with  potash 
salts  and  basic  slag  meal  in  addition  to  nitrate  of  soda 
produced  far  heavier  and  more  satisfactory  crops. 

As  shown  in  the  accompanying  table,  the  largest  in- 
creases were  secured  by  the  use  of  heavy  applications  of 
manure,  or  practically  the  same  by  using  a  complete  ferti- 
lizer. Nitrate  of  soda  alone  had  but  little  effect,  and  this 
also  true  of  muriate  of  potash.  Acid  phosphate  alone  gave 
the  best  results  of  any  single  fertilizing  element.  The 
results  of  the  three  combined  apparently  increased  the 
effectiveness  of  each.  Apparently  the  most  far-reaching 
tests  of  fertilizers  to  determine  the  effect  on  yield  of  hay 
are  those  of  Morrow  and  Hunt. 


160        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  RESULTS  SECURED  FROM  FERTILIZING 
KENTUCKY  BLUE-GRASS  AT  THE  ILLINOIS  EXPERIMENT 
STATION.  (MORROW  AND  HUNT) 


H 

H 

(x      • 

P5 

B  3 

| 

1 

2  3 

O 

0S 

g 
H 

L 

CH     ^ 

«00 

Cfi  ^ 

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V  > 

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KIND  OF  FERTILIZER 

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o  w" 

OH 

g* 

H  H 

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BOTH  SEASONS 

0  W 

go 

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irf 

5  1 

0^    ' 

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1 

Horse  manure  l 

12  loads 

2,340 

3,180 

2,760 

1,165 

73 

2 

None        ... 



1,220 

2,100 

1,660 



— 

3 

Cattle  tankage 

500  lb. 

1,600 

2,400 

2,000 

405 

25 

4 

Superphosphate 

500  lb. 

1,880 

2,200 

2,040 

445 

27 

5 

None        .     .     . 



1,080 

2,040 

1,560 



— 

6 

Horse  manure  2 

13  loads 

2,160 

2,460 

2,310 

715 

45 

Superphosphate     . 

500  lb. 

7 

Muriate  of  potash  3 

200  lb. 

2,280 

3,060 

2,670 

1,075 

67 

Nitrate  of  soda 

200  lb. 

8 

None        .... 



720 

2,000 

1,560 



— 

g 

Muriate  of  potash  3 

200  lb. 

960 

2,320 

1,640 

45 

3 

10 

Nitrate  of  soda      .     . 

200  lb. 

1,040 

2,340 

1,690 

95 

6 

11 

Gypsum       .... 

500  lb. 

780 

2,060 

1,420 

~ 

~ 

149.  Yields  of  hay.  —  Blue-grass  is  too  small  to  give 
large  yields  of  hay  and  is  seldom  employed  for  such  pur- 
pose, excepting  where  it  comes  in  naturally.  The  hay  is 
considered  to  be  of  good  quality,  but  not  equal  to  timothy. 

Yields  in  pounds  to  the  acre  have  been  reported  by  ex- 
periment stations  as  follows  :  Ohio,  2187,  6-year  average  ; 
Kansas,  1830,  2-year  average;  Michigan  (Upper  Penin- 
sula), 3280;  Guelph,  Ontario,  3160,  7-year  average; 
Utah,  1060 ;  Lacombe,  Alberta,  1724,  2-year  average. 

At  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station  Kentucky  blue-grass 
gave  a  yield  of  2508  pounds  dry  matter  to  the  acre  when 

1 24,320  lb.  in  1890.        2  21,880  lb.  in  1890.        3  Sulfate  of  potash  in  1890. 


BLUE-GRASSES  161 

the  seeds  were  in  the  milk  stage,  and  2907  pounds  when 
the  seeds  were  ripe. 

In  Europe  yields  ranging  from  3500  to  6250  pounds 
an  acre  are  reported,  but  most  of  these  are  based  on  very 
small  plots. 

Irrigated  blue-grass  at  the  Iowa  Experiment  Station 
yielded  15,160  pounds  green  matter,  and  non-irrigated 
10,360,  the  water  contents  of  the  grass  being,  respectively, 
67  and  60  per  cent. 

150.  Seed-production.  —  Commercial  seed  of  Kentucky 
blue-grass  is  gathered  mainly  in  the  blue-grass  region  of 
Kentucky,  especially  the  counties  of  Bourbon,  Fayette 
and  Clark.  In  recent  years  increasing  quantities  are 
harvested  in  northern  Missouri  and  southern  Iowa. 

The  seed  is  harvested  from  about  the  10th  to  the  15th 
of  June,  as  soon  as  the  panicle  has  become  yellow  and 
the  grain  firm.  Where  a  large  acreage  is  to  be  cut,  how- 
ever, the  harvesting  is  begun  sooner.  Some  of  the  seed 
is  gathered  by  means  of  hand  strippers,  but  most  of  it 
by  stripping  machines,  of  which  various  forms  have  been 
devised.  The  most  efficient  machines  are  rotary  strippers 
in  which  a  revolving  cylinder  studded  with  rows  of  nails 
brushes  the  heads  against  a  platform  and  into  a  receptacle 
behind. 

The  stripped  heads  must  be  carefully  cured  in  order 
to  secure  the  best  seed.  This  is  commonly  done  in  the 
open,  preferably  where  the  ground  has  a  hard  smooth 
surface.  The  seed  is  piled  in  long,  narrow  ricks,  pref- 
erably not  over  18  inches  high,  which  must  be  frequently 
turned  to  accelerate  curing  and  to  prevent  heating. 
During  the  first  few  days  each  rick  should  be  turned  at 
least  three  times  a  day.  The  viability  of  the  seed  is 
greatly  affected  by  the  care  used  in  curing,  and  lack  of 


162 


FORAGE  PLANTS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE 


care  in  this  process  more  than  anything  else  injures  the 
quality  of  the  seed.  Pieters  and  Brown  found  that  freshly 
gathered  seed  when  put  in  ricks  would  heat  to  a  tempera- 
ture of  130  to  140  degrees  in  less  than  16  hours,  and  that 
this  temperature  would  entirely  destroy  the  vitality  in 
16  hours  or  less. 

The  'seed  is  mostly  cleaned  at  warehouses  with  special 
cleaning  machinery.     The  yield  averages  about  15  bushels 

per  acre,  and  25  bush- 
els is  the  maximum. 

At  the  Kentucky  Ex- 
periment Station,  seeds 
were  gathered  every 
day  or  two  in  June 
from  the  time  the  first 
ripened.  Germination 
tests  gave  poorer  re- 
sults for  those  gathered 
very  early  and  very 
late,  the  best  being 
FIG.  14.  — Mixture  of  seeds  of  Ken-  those  harvested  be- 

tucky  blue-grass   (a)    and    Canada   blue-  tween     June      14      and 
grass  (b).     The  Kentucky  blue-grass  seeds  j           _K 
are  broadest  at  the  center,   pointed   and  June  Zo. 
have  a  distinct  ridge  on  each  side.    Canada  151.     Seed.  —  Ken- 
blue-grass  seed  are  mostly  broadest  near  111                              i 
one  end,  blunt  and  smooth  on  the  sides.  tucky    blue-grass    Seed 

is  frequently  adulter- 
ated with  the  cheaper  Canada  blue-grass  (Fig.  14).  This 
is  always  an  adulteration,  as  the  former  matures  several 
weeks  before  the  latter.  Pure  Kentucky  blue-grass  is 
brownish-straw  in  color,  in  the  bulk  considerably  darker 
than  Canada  blue-grass  seed.  The  percentage  of  chaff 
varies  greatly,  according  to  the  methods  of  cleaning  used, 
but  the  best  seed  has  10  to  20  per  cent  of  chaff. 


BL  UE-GRA  SSES  163 

The  purity  of  commercial  seed  is  commonly  70-80  and 
rarely  85  per  cent.  The  viability  may  reach  80-90, 
but  usually  is  only  65-80  per  cent.  In  some  cases  very 
fresh  seeds  refuse  to  germinate.  The  seeds  begin  to 
sprout  under  favorable  conditions  in  9  or  10  days,  but 
many  require  a  longer  time,  up  to  28  days.  Light  has  no 
effect  on  germination,  but  rapid  alternation  of  tempera- 
tures is  necessary  for  the  best  results. 

The  legal  weight  of  a  bushel  is  14  pounds,  but  the 
weight  varies  from  14  to  28  pounds.  One  pound  contains, 
according  to  different  authorities,  2,400,000  seeds  (Ste- 
bler) ;  1,860,000  (Hunter) ;  2,185,000  (Hunt) ;  3,888,000 
(Lawson). 

Among  the  objectionable  weed  seeds  that  may  occur 
in  Kentucky  blue-grass  are  buckhorn,  yellow  dock,  and  if 
adulterated  with  Canada  blue-grass,  it  may  contain 
Canada  thistle. 

152.  Hybrids.  —  Natural  hybrids  of  Poa  pratensis  with 
P.  trivialis  and  with  P.  compressa  have  been  described  in 
Europe,  but  both  are  very  rare.     Their  parentage  has  not 
been  proven  by  breeding,  but  is  surmised  from  structural 
characters  and  the  association  with  their  supposed  parents. 

G.  W.  Oliver  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture 
has  successfully  hybridized  Poa  pratensis  with  P.  arachni- 
fera,  Texas  blue-grass,  using  the  pistillate  plants  of  the 
latter.  The  hybrids  show  much  diversity  and  produce 
but  little  seed  due  to  defective  stamens. 

153.  Canada   blue-grass    (Poa  compressa).     Botany. — 
Canada  blue-grass,    also   known   as   Virginia   blue-grass, 
flatstem  bluegrass  and  wire-grass,  is  native  to  the   Old 
World,  ranging  throughout  temperate  Europe  and  Asia 
Minor.     It  was  found  near  Quebec  as  early  as  1792  by 
Michaux  and  in  1823  by  Richardson  on  the  upper  Saskatch- 


164        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

ewan.  Its  wide  distribution  at  so  early  a  date  is  re- 
markable, but  it  is  quite  certain  that  the  grass  is  not 
native. 

Typical  Poa  compressa  bears  2  to  3  leaves  on  a  culm, 
a  panicle  about  2  inches  long  with  the  spikelets  5-  to  8- 
flowered.  It  produces  abundant  rootstocks,  and  forms 
a  tough  sod.  The  compressed  culms  are  evenly  scattered 
and  are  remarkable  for  remaining  green  long  after  the 
seeds  have  matured.  The  whole  herbage  is  pale  and 
glaucous. 

154.  Seed.  —  Canada  blue-grass  seed  closely  resembles 
that  of  Kentucky  blue-grass,  and  as  it  is  cheaper,  it  has 
been  much  used  to   adulterate  the  latter.     As  Canada 
thistles  are  often  present  in  fields  of  Canada  blue-grass, 
the  presence  of  the  prickles  of  the  thistles  is  sometimes 
used  to  identify  the  seed,  but  neither  this  nor  the  paler 
color  of  the  seed  is  wholly  reliable.     The  best  character 
to  distinguish  the  two  seeds  is  the  less  prominent  veins 
of  the  lemma  in  the  Canada  blue-grass  (Fig.  14).     The  seed 
weighs  14  to  24  pounds  to  the  bushel. 

The  seed  is  much  cheaper  than  Kentucky  blue-grass 
seed  and  much  more  viable  as  a  rule,  the  average  germina- 
tion being  about  85  per  cent.  The  seed  is  produced  mainly 
in  Ontario  and  about  650,000  pounds  a  year  were  imposed 
into  the  United  States  up  to  1909. 

155.  Culture.  —  In  Ontario,  where  Canada  blue-grass 
is  most  abundant,  this  grass  is  seldom  sown  as  it  usually 
appears   spontaneously.     It  is  often  plentiful  enough  in 
wheat  stubble  so  that  good  fall  pasturage  is  afforded. 
Such  stands  are  often  left  either  to  be  cut  for  hay  or  for 
seed. 

The  yield  of  hay  is  not  heavy,  usually  about  1  ton  and 
never  more  than  1^-  tons,  but  it  bears  an  excellent  reputa- 


PLATE  I.  —  PANICLES  OF  CANADA  BLUE-GRASS  (LEFT)  AND 
KENTUCKY  BLUE-GRASS  (RIGHT). 


BLUE-GRASSES  165 

tion  as  horse  feed,  and  commands  nearly  as  good  a  price 
as  timothy.  It  is  said,  however,  to  have  a  tendency  to 
produce  colic  if  fed  in  large  quantities. 

There  is  no  particular  difficulty  in  harvesting  the  seed 
of  Canada  blue-grass,  strippers  not  being  required  as  in 
the  case  of  Kentucky  blue-grass.  The  grass  is  cut  when 
the  heads  appear  golden,  and  handled  much  like  hay, 
but  it  should  be  put  into  small  shocks  promptly,  as  other- 
wise much  seed  may  be  lost  by  shattering.  The  seed  is 
thrashed  in  an  ordinary  grain  separator,  but  special  screens 
are  necessary.  Canada  blue-grass  is  ripe  when  wheat  is 
harvested  and  some  seed  is  secured  when  the  wheat  is 
thrashed  by  using  a  special  screen  to  separate  it  from  the 
chaff  and  trash.  The  average  yield  of  seed  an  acre  is 
about  200  pounds  and  the  maximum  about  500  pounds. 

Canada  blue-grass  is  seldom  sown  pure,  but  when  thus 
planted  about  15  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  is  required.  On 
poor  rocky  or  clay  soils  Canada  blue-grass  will  probably 
give  as  great  a  return  in  pasturage  as  any  single  grass, 
and  its  planting  under  such  conditions  is  desirable. 

156.  Adaptations.  —  Canada  blue-grass  is  adapted  to 
quite  the  same  range  of  climatic  conditions  as  Kentucky 
blue-grass,  but  is  more  resistant  to  summer  heat  and  to 
drought.  It  is  most  abundant  in  eastern  Canada  and  the 
northeastern  United  States,  but  it  occurs  south  as  far  as 
South  Carolina  and  central  Alabama,  and  west  to  the 
Pacific  Coast. 

Unlike  Kentucky  blue-grass,  it  is  most  abundant  in 
poor  soils,  whether  gravels,  thin  soil  over  rock  or  clay. 
This  is  probably  not  so  much  preference  as  inability  to 
cope  with  other  grasses  on  good  soils.  It  is  often  abundant 
on  the  sides  of  cuts  where  the  subsoil  is  exposed,  while  on 
the  good  surface  soil  other  grasses  occur. 


166         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR    CULTURE 

It  is  more  drought  resistant  than  Kentucky  blue-grass 
but  less  well  adapted  to  growing  in  moist  or  wet  soils. 
It  is  primarily  a  grass  of  the  open  and  does  not  succeed 
well  in  shade. 

157.  Importance.  —  Canada    blue-grass    is    important 
from  its  ability  to  grow  on  poor  soils  and  produce  small 
crops  of  hay  or  good  pasturage  under  conditions  where 
other  grasses  will  scarcely  thrive.     Under  such  conditions 
it  is  valuable  and  its  good  points  are  being  more  generally 
recognized.     It    has    suffered    in    reputation    somewhat, 
because  its  seed  was  used  to  adulterate  Kentucky  blue- 
grass  and  because  it  has  generally  been  compared  to  that 
grass.     Its  main  usefulness,  however,  is  under  conditions 
which  Kentucky  blue-grass  will  not  endure. 

It  is  primarily  a  pasture  grass  and  is  grazed  upon  by 
all  herbivorous  animals.  It  not  only  will  withstand  very 
close  grazing  but,  on  account  of  the  stems  remaining  green, 
can  be  used  as  reserve  pasturage  late  in  the  season.  Cattle 
raisers  who  are  familiar  with  Canada  blue-grass  consider 
it  excellent  for  fattening. 

At  the  present  time  Canada  blue-grass  is  most  important 
in  Ontario  and  New  York,  but  it  is  abundant  in  Penn- 
sylvania, Virginia,  Maryland  and  West  Virginia,  and  is 
spreading  on  the  so-called  scab  lands  of  the  Columbia 
River  Basin.  In  other  countries,  Canada  blue-grass  is 
of  very  little  importance. 

158.  Texas     blue-grass     (Poa     arachnifera) .  —  Texas 
blue-grass  is  a  native  perennial  species  in  southern  Texas 
and  adjacent  Oklahoma.     In  a  general  way  its  habits  are 
similar  to  Kentucky  blue-grass,  but  the  plants  are  larger 
and  coarser.     Unlike  any  other  cultivated  species  of  Poa, 
the  plants  are  unisexual,  that  is,  some  are  pistillate  and 
some  are  staminate.     The  base  of  each  lemma  has  a  tuft 


ME  A  D  O  W-GRA  SSES  167 

of  long  hairs  and  so  the  seed  must  be  gathered  by  stripping 
after  the  manner  of  Kentucky  blue-grass. 

Texas  blue-grass  has  been  tested  at  many  of  the  ex- 
periment stations,  especially  in  the  South  and  as  far  north 
as  Maryland.  It  makes  rather  more  growth  than  Ken- 
tucky blue-grass,  and  being  more  bunchy  in  habit  it  does 
not  make  as  satisfactory  a  lawn.  Furthermore,  the  grass 
is  not  aggressive  and  in  time  is  crowded  out  by  other 
grasses.  This  peculiarity  as  well  as  the  high  cost  of  the 
seed  has  prevented  any  large  use  of  Texas  blue-grass,  and 
commercial  seed  can  be  found  only  in  small  quantities. 

Oliver  has  endeavored  to  combine  the  good  qualities 
of  Texas  blue-grass  and  Kentucky  blue-grass  by  hybridiz- 
ing. Hybrids  were  easily  secured  by  placing  pollen  of 
Kentucky  blue-grass  on  the  flowers  of  the  female  plant 
of  Texas  blue-grass.  The  hybrids  were  very  diverse  in 
appearance,  most  of  them  having  rootstocks  like  their 
parents,  but  some  were  entirely  without  rhizomes.  The 
variability  in  the  leaf  was  also  very  marked,  some  of  the 
forms  having  much  broader  leaves  than  either  parent. 
Unfortunately,  none  of  the  numerous  hybrids  secured 
showed  any  better  seed  habits  than  those  of  Texas  blue- 
grass,  and  most  of  them  were  inferior  in  this  respect. 

THE    MEADOW-GRASSES 

159.  Fowl  meadow-grass  (Poa  triflora).  —  This  grass  is 
also  known  botanically  as  Poa  serotina  and  Poa  flava  and 
agriculturally  as  late  meadow-grass  and  fertile  meadow- 
grass.  It  is  native  to  both  Eurasia  and  North  America, 
and  on  this  continent  ranges  from  Alaska  to  California, 
Colorado,  Iowa  and  Pennsylvania. 

Unlike  the  other  cultivated  Poas,  this  species  is  adapted 
to  wet  meadows,  but  does  not  grow  in  standing  water. 


168        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

It  is  intolerant  to  high  summer  heat  and,  therefore,  does 
not  thrive  southwards.  In  the  area  to  which  it  is  adapted 
it  has  much  the  same  requirements  as  redtop  and  is  equally 
late  in  blooming. 

Fowl  meadow-grass  was  one  of  the  early  grasses  to 
receive  agricultural  attention  in  America,  being  considered 
by  Jared  Eliot  in  1747  as  the  best  grass  hay  in  eastern 
Massachusetts  and  decidedly  superior  to  timothy.  It 
first  attracted  attention  on  -the  wet  meadows  along  the 
Charles  River,  where  it  appeared  spontaneously  and 
covered  extensive  low  meadows.  It  was  supposed  to  have 
been  introduced  there  by  water  fowl,  whence  its  common 
name.  On  suitable  land  old  American  reports  give  the 
yield  as  1  to  3  tons  of  hay  an  acre,  and  state  that  it  can 
be  cut  at  any  time  from  June  till  October. 

This  grass  has  recently  been  investigated  at  the  Ver- 
mont Experiment  Station.  It  occurs  abundantly  along 
Otter  Creek  on  natural  meadows  which  have  never  been 
plowed  and  which  yield  1  to  2  tons  an  acre.  These 
meadows  are  overflowed  each  year,  a  condition  adverse 
to  timothy  and  red  clover,  which  are  absent,  but  some 
redtop  and  Glyceria  americana  are  mixed  with  the  fowl 
meadow-grass . 

In  plot  experiments  on  bottom  land,  fowl  meadow-grass 
was  found  slow  to  start,  like  Kentucky  blue-grass,  and  the 
grass  was  not  fully  established  until  the  third  season.  In 
1899  a  yield  of  4400  pounds  hay  and  136  pounds  seed 
an  acre  was  obtained.  Late  cuttings  when  the  seed  is 
ripe  give  a  considerably  larger  yield  than  if  cut  when  in 
bloom.  The  yields  of  timothy  under  the  same  conditions 
have  been  about  25  per  cent  smaller. 

On  account  of  the  slow  growth  of  fowl  meadow-grass, 
it  is  advised  that  it  be  sown  in  mixture  with  other  grasses, 


MEADOW-GRASSES  169 

as  follows  :  timothy,  10  pounds  ;  alsike,  6  pounds ;  redtop, 
recleaned,  4  pounds;  fowl  meadow-grass,  10  pounds. 
The  experimental  plots  that  were  sown  to  redtop  and  to 
timothy  were  nearly  pure  fowl  meadow-grass  after  3 
years. 

It  is  probable  that  results  comparable  to  those  secured 
in  Vermont  could  be  obtained  in  any  similar  lands  in  the 
northern  tier  of  states  and  in  Canada. 

Commercial  seed  is  grown  in  Europe  and  is  generally 
of  very  poor  quality.  In  the  Vermont  experiments  a  yield 
of  6  bushels  an  acre,  weighing  114  pounds,  was  secured, 
and  in  one  instance  a  small  plot  yielded  at  the  rate  of 
7  bushels  an  acre. 

160.  Rough-stalked  meadow-grass  (Poa  trivialis).  — 
This  European  grass  is  very  similar  to  Kentucky  blue- 
grass,  but  may  be  distinguished  by  the  roughness  of  the 
stalk  near  the  panicle,  rough  leaves  and  absence  of  root- 
stocks.  In  Europe  it  is  of  more  importance  than  Ken- 
tucky blue-grass,  but  in  America  has  scarcely  ever  been 
cultivated  and,  though  sparingly  naturalized,  has  no- 
where become  abundant. 

It  is  adapted  to  moist  soils  and  moist  climates.  In 
England  it  was  one  of  the  first  grasses  to  be  cultivated. 
In  moist  mountain  regions,  it  is  often  the  common  pasture 
grass.  If  cut  for  hay,  a  very  good  yield  is  often  obtained, 
but  the  aftermath  is  very  scant. 

There  is  little  likelihood  that  this  grass  will  be  found 
valuable  in  America,  except  perhaps  in  the  Pacific  North- 
west. European  authorities  advise  sowing  26  pounds 
of  seed  to  the  acre. 

The  commercial  seed  is  harvested  mainly  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  Hamburg,  Germany,  and  in  Denmark.  Yields 
as  high  as  400  pounds  to  the  acre  are  reported. 


170        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

161.  Wood     meadow-grass     (Poa    nemoralis). —  This 
grass   is   native   both   to    Eurasia   and   North   America, 
but  immensely  variable.     In  North  America,  it  is  native 
from  Alaska  to  Colorado  in  the  mountains,  and  south- 
eastward  to    Minnesota    and    Pennsylvania.     The    agri- 
cultural  seed   is,    however,    gathered    almost   wholly   in 
Germany,  and  mainly  from  wild  growing  grass  in  wood- 
lands.    Wood  meadow-grass  is   remarkably  adapted   to 
growing  in  shade  and,  being  fine  in  texture,  is  much  em- 
ployed for  shady  lawns.     It  is,  however,  far  more  averse 
to  heat  than  Kentucky  blue-grass  and  rarely  succeeds 
south  of  its  natural  range. 

REDTOP 

162.  Names.  —  Redtop   is   so    called   in   most   of   the 
United  States,  but  in  Pennsylvania  and  the  South  is  also 
known  as   herd's-grass,  which  same    name  in  the  New 
England  States  is  applied  to  timothy.     In  Europe  it  is 
commonly  called  florin,  and  in  England  is  also  known  as 
bent-grass.     Its  scientific  name  is  usually  given  by  seeds- 
men as  Agrostis  alba,  but  sometimes  A.  vulgaris,  A.  dispar 
or  A.  capillaris. 

163.  Botany.  —  The    botanical   relationship   of   redtop 
and  the  numerous  closely  related  forms  is  a  most  complex 
problem.     Many    botanists    consider    Agrostis    alba    and 
A.  vulgaris  a  single  species,  but  others  hold  them  distinct. 
The  character  most  relied  upon  is  the  ligule,  this  being 
very  small  in  vulgaris,  but  well  developed  in  alba.     Nu- 
merous varieties  of  each  have  been  described  by  European 
botanists.     The  ordinary  cultivated  forms  of  redtop  are 
referable  to  A.  alba,  which  is  native  to  the  Old  World, 
occurring  over  most  of  Europe  and  Asia ;  and  in  Africa  is 
found  in  the  northern  parts  and  in  Abyssinia.     It  is  very 


REDTOP  171 

doubtful  if  it  is  endemic  in  North  America.  Agrostis 
vulgaris  is,  however,  certainly  native  to  North  America, 
one  form  being  abundant  in  the  coastal  lands  of  New 
England  and  known  as  "  Rhode  Island  Bent." 

Other  native  American  varieties  are  aristata  which 
occurs  from  Maine  to  Virginia  and  differs  by  having  an 
awn  rising  from  near  the  base  of  the  lemma ;  and  maritima 
which  has  long,  decumbent,  rooting  stems,  occurring  along 
the  coast  from  Newfoundland  to  Delaware. 

The  cultivated  varieties  are  only  three;  namely,  com- 
mon redtop,  which  is  typical  Agrostis  alba  L. ;  Rhode 
Island  Bent,  which  is  the  native  American  form  of  Agros- 
tis vulgaris  Withering;  and  Creeping  Bent  of  Europe, 
commonly  sold  as  Agrostis  stolonifera,  but  it  is  not  the 
plant  so  named  by  Linnaeus. 

164.  Agricultural  history.  —  Redtop  was  first  brought 
into  prominence  by  Dr.  William  Richardson  in  Ireland  in 
1807,  though  apparently  this  was  not  its  first  cultivation, 
as  Vianne  states  that  it  was  grown  in  France  in  1761.     It 
was  early  introduced  into  the  United  States,  but  no  record 
before  1807  has  been  found. 

165.  Adaptations.  —  Redtop    has    probably    a    wider 
range  of  adaptation  to  climatic  and  soil  conditions  than 
any  other  cultivated  grass.     It  succeeds  well  over  most 
of  the  United  States  except  the  drier  regions  and  the  ex- 
treme South.     In  resistance  to  cold  it  is  at  least  equal  to 
timothy,   and  it  withstands  summer  heat  much  better. 
At  Copper  Center,  Alaska,  it  matures  seed. 

It  thrives  best  on  moist  or  wet  soils,  and  will  even  grow 
vigorously  in 'the  bottom  of  shallow  ponds,  which  later 
become  dry.  When  thus  growing  aquatically,  the  leaf 
blades  float  on  the  surface  and  the  grass  is  not  readily 
recognized.  Provided  moisture  is  abundant,  it  does  not 


172        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

show  marked  preference  for  soil  types,  but  does  best  in 
clay  loams  and  loams.  Notwithstanding  its  marked 
adaptation  to  wet  land,  it  will  withstand  considerable 
drought  and  on  poor  uplands,  even  if  somewhat  sandy,  will 
thrive  better  than  most  other  grasses. 

It  is  not  well  adapted  to  shade,  and  is  rarely  found  in 
such  situations. 

166.  Characteristics.  —  Redtop,     if     grown     isolated, 
makes  tufts  1  to  3  feet  in  diameter,  usually  about  30 
inches  high,  but  sometimes  3|  feet.     The  vigorous  root- 
stocks  are  shallow  and  mostly  2  to  6  inches  long.     These 
enable  redtop  to  make  a  dense  turf  even  'in  pure  cultures. 
If  kept  closely  mown  the  leaves  become  much  finer,  and 
a  very  satisfactory  lawn  results.     Wherever  the  grass  is 
thin,  the  rootstocks  promptly  become  more  vigorous  and 
bear  broader  leaves. 

The  grass  blooms  somewhat  later  than  timothy,  so 
that  mixtures  of  the  two  cut  when  timothy  is  in  bloom, 
rarely  show  any  panicles  of  redtop. 

On  account  of  its  characteristics,  redtop  is  perhaps  better 
adapted  to  pasturing  than  for  hay.  It  is  a  common  ele- 
ment of  all  northern  pastures,  but  most  abundant  where 
the  ground  is  wet  or  poor.  In  pasturing  experiments, 
cattle  usually  show  preference  to  all  other  cultivated 
grasses  over  redtop. 

167.  Importance.  —  Redtop  is  probably  the  third  or 
fourth  most  important  perennial  grass  in  America,  being 
exceeded  by  timothy,  Kentucky  blue-grass  and  perhaps 
Bermuda.     It  makes  up  more  or  less  of  the  pasturage 
over  the  whole  area  to  which  it  is  adapted,  especially  on 
wet  and  on  non-calcareous  soils.     As  a  hay  crop  it  is 
most  important  in  New  England,  where  it  comprises  most 
of  the  1,100,999  acres  of  "  other  tame  or  cultivated  grasses." 


REDTOP  173 

On  the  poor  clayey  soils  in  southern  Illinois  it  succeeds 
better  than  any  other  similar  grass. 

168.  Variability.  —  Cultivated  redtop  is  very  variable 
and  many  strikingly  different  individuals  can  readily  be 
selected.     The  leaves  may  be  very  narrow  or  broad,  dark 
bluish  green  or  pale  green  in  color ;   the  panicles  large  or 
small,  purple  or  green ;  the  rootstocks  very  abundant  and 
vigorous,  or  few,  or  even  wanting.     In  recent  times  some 
attention  has  been  given  to  the  selection  of   improved 
strains,  but  none  of  these  have  yet  become  agriculturally 
established. 

169.  Regional  strains.  —  Commercial  seed  is  produced 
only  in  the  United  States  and  in  Germany.     Stebler  and 
Volkart  report  experiments  in  Switzerland,  in  which  the 
German  strain  showed  far  greater  ability  than  the  Ameri- 
can to  maintain  itself.     The  American  strain  almost  dis- 
appeared after  7  years,  while  the  German  strain  increased 
markedly  and  still  held  its  own  after  9  years. 

170.  Culture.  —  Redtop,  like  Kentucky  blue-grass,  is 
such  an  aggressive  grass  that  it  usually  comes  in  naturally 
where  once  established.     It  is    rarely    sown    alone    and 
usually  but  a  small  proportion  of  seed  is  included  in  mix- 
tures.    There  is  little  accurate  information  available  as 
to  rates  of  seeding  when  sown  alone,  different  writers  rec- 
ommending from  6  to  50  pounds,  but  not  always  specify- 
ing the  quality.     Of  good  "  recleaned  "  seed  10  pounds 
per  acre  should  be  ample,  and  a  correspondingly  larger 
amount  if  of  inferior  grades.     It  may  be  sown  in  the  same 
manner  as  timothy.     Stebler  and  Volkart  recommend  for 
Switzerland  14  pounds  per  acre,  germinating  72  per  cent. 

Redtop  is  also  an  exceedingly  good  grass  for  lawns 
if  sown  thickly  and  kept  closely  mowed,  under  which 
conditions  the  leaves  are  fine  and  the  turf  dense. 


174        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR    CULTURE 


171.  Yield  of  hay.  —  The  yields  of  redtop  hay  on  wet 
lands  are  usually  better  than  those  of  any  other  hay  grass. 
It  is,  however,  much  better  used  in  mixture,  especially 
with  timothy  and  alsike.  If  grown  alone  the  return  is  as 
a  rule  less  than-  that  of  timothy.  American  experiment 
stations  have  reported  yields  in  pounds  to  the  acre  as 
follows:  Ohio,  5634;  Kansas,  3399;  Illinois,  3600; 
Virginia  (Arlington  Farm),  3200;  Michigan  (Upper 
Peninsula),  3493;  Ontario  (Guelph),  5580;  North  Caro- 
lina, 2940. 

Vianne  in  France  records  hay  yields  of  6290  pounds 
to  the  acre ;  Sinclair  in  England  of  7600  pounds  from  the 
first  cutting  and  2640  pounds  from  the  second ;  Nielsen 
and  Lindhard  in  Denmark  secured  as  the  average  of  7  plot 

trials  3000  pounds  the  first 
year,  2980  pounds  the  sec- 
ond year,  2200  pounds  the 
third  year. 

172.  Seed-production. 
—Commercial  redtop  seed 
is  grown  mainly  in  south- 
ern Illinois.  The  seed  was 
formerly  harvested  by 
cutting  the  crop  with  a 
mowing  machine,  curing 
thoroughly  and  then 
thrashing.  In  recent  years 
rotary  strippers,  such  as 
are  used  for  Kentucky 
blue-grass,  have  been  em- 
ployed. After  the  seed  is  thus  stripped,  the  crop  is  cut  for 
hay  and  sometimes  is  thrashed  to  secure  the  seed  left  by 
the  strippers. 


FIG.  15.  —  Seeds  of  redtop  repre- 
senting the  "fancy"  grade  of  the 
trade,  a,  different  views  of  seeds  hav- 
ing the  white,  papery,  inner  chaff ; 
b,  two  views  of  a  grain,  or  kernel,  with 
the  inner  chaff  removed ;  c,  the  same, 
nearly  natural  size. 


REDTOP 


175 


The  recleaning  of  the  seed  and  its  separation  into 
grades  is  done  by  factories  with  special  cleaning  ma- 
chines. 

The  annual  yield  in  Illinois  has  been  estimated  as 
700,000  pounds  from  50,000  acres. 

173.    Seed.  —  Commercial    seed    of    redtop    occurs    in 
three  grades:    1.  "  Fancy,"  "  choice  "  or   "  recleaned  "  ; 
2.  "Unhulled";   and  3.  "Chaff"   seed.     "  Recleaned " 
seed  consists  of  free  grains 
and  those  covered  with  the 
inner  silvery  chaff.     "  Urir 
hulled  "  seed  is  that  which 
is  still  inclosed  in  the  outer 
glumes.  "  Chaff  "  is  mainly 
the  empty  scales  and  fine 
rubbish,  with  but  a  small 
percentage  of  good  seed. 

Recleaned  or  fancy  seed 
should  have  a  purity  of  95- 
98  per  cent,  and  a  similar  FlG-  16.  — Chaff  of  redtop  ped. 

,.       .    i  .  -, . ,  a,  whole  spikelets  usually  devoid  of 

percentage  of  viability.     seed  in  "chaffy"  srades;  b>  sepa. 
The   germination    remains    rated  sfales  of  the  same;  a  and  b 

-,  f  i  r,      represent  the  outer  chaff  of  the  seed. 

good  for  several  years.     It     (Enlarged.) 
is    sometimes    adulterated 

with  timothy  seed.     Among  the  common  weed  seeds  pres- 
ent as  impurities  are  oxeye  daisy  and  buckhorn. 

The  legal  weight  to  the  bushel  is  14  pounds,  but  the 
actual  weight  ranges  from  12  to  40  pounds.  The  number 
of  seeds  to  one  pound  varies  with  the  quality.  Thus,  it  is 
given  as  4,135,900  by  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station; 
6,400,000  by  the  North  Carolina  Experiment  Station; 
and  7,800,000  by  Hunt,  quoting  from  Lawson.  Stebler 
gives  the  number  as  603,000,  evidently  an  error. 


CHAPTER  IX 

ORCHARD-GRASS,      TALL     OAT-GRASS      AND 
BROME-GRASSES 

TIMOTHY  is  to  such  preponderating  extent  the  most  im- 
portant hay  grass  in  America  that  other  valuable  sorts 
have  been  relatively  much  neglected.  The  species  dis- 
cussed here  have  somewhat  different  adaptations  than 
timothy,  and  hence  are  potentially  important  in  regions 
where  timothy  does  not  thrive  well.  Orchard-grass  and 
tall  oat-grass  are  well  adapted  to  a  broad  belt  south  of  the 
area  in  which'  timothy  succeeds  best.  Brome-grass  is  es- 
pecially valuable  in  temperate  regions  of  small  rainfall. 

ORCHARD-GRASS 

174.  Description.  —  Orchard-grass,    in    England    com- 
monly called  cock's-foot  or  rough  cock's-foot,  is  a  long- 
lived,  perennial  grass  forming  dense  circular  tufts  which 
may  become  a  foot  or  more  in  diameter.     It  is  a  typical 
bunch  grass,  producing  no  stolons,  and  hence  never  forms 
a  complete  sod.     The  peculiar  inflorescence  is  characteris- 
tic and  cannot  be  mistaken  for  any  other  cultivated  grass. 

175.  Botany.  —  Orchard-grass    (Dactylis    glomerata)    is 
native   throughout   Europe   excepting   the   northernmost 
portions,  much  of  the  northern  half  of  Asia,  and  in  Africa 
in  the  mountains  of  Algeria   and  in  Madeira   and  the 
Canaries.     Botanists   have   distinguished   a  x  considerable 
number  of  varieties.     Among  the  more  noteworthy  are 
hispanica,   which  has  the  branches  of  the  panicle  not 

176 


ORCHARD-GRASS,    OAT-GRASS,   BROME-GRASSES     177 


stalked  but  flower-bearing  to  the  base;    maritima,  with 
the  panicle  dark  violet ;  pendula,  with  a  looser,  somewhat 
drooping  panicle  ;  abbreviata,  with  a  short  compact  panicle ; 
and    ciliata,    which 
differs    from    all    the 
above  in  having  hairy 
sheaths  and  lemmas. 

Very  closely  related 
species  are  Dactylis 
aschersoniana,  which 
has  creeping  root- 
stocks  and  mostly 
6-flowered  spikelets, 
and  Dactylis  altaica. 

None  of  these  have 
become  agricultural 
grasses,  but  variety 
pendula  was  at  one 
time  supplied  by  Vil- 
morin  in  France. 

176.  Agricultural 
history.  —  Orchard- 
grass  was  cultivated* 
in  Virginia  before 
1760,  in  which  year 
seed  was  sent  to  Eng- 
land. Its  Culture  in  FIG.  17.  —  Orchard-grass  (Dactylis 
Continental  Europe  be-  Olomerata).  a,  spikelet ;  b,  floret ;  c,  sta- 
n  .  mens  and  pistil ;  d,  ligule  ;  e,  section  of 

gan   about  the  begin-    node. 
ning    of    the    nine- 
teenth  century    and    became   important   by    1850.      At 
the  present  time  it   is    cultivated   in  nearly  all  temper- 
ate regions. 


178         FORAGE  PLANTS   AND    THEIR    CULTURE 

177.  Climatic    adaptations.  —  While    orchard-grass    is 
strictly   a  temperate  grass,   it   will  withstand   a  greater 
quantity  of  heat  than  timothy,  and  is  also  more  easily 
injured  by  winter  cold..    In  the  United  States,  it  is  culti- 
vated more  abundantly  southward  than  northward.     This 
distribution  is  due  partly  to  competition  with  timothy  and 
partly  from  the  fact  that  fall-sown  stands  of  orchard- 
grass  are  uncertain.     This  uncertainty  has  been  ascribed 
to  late  frosts  rather  than  winter  cold,  but  the  evidence 
is  not  satisfactory.     Orchard-grass  begins  its  growth  in 
spring  much  earlier  than  most  grasses,  which  is  one  reason 
why  the  late  spring  frosts  are  injurious. 

At  Copper  Center,  Alaska,  it  was  entirely  winter-killed, 
while  a  considerable  percentage  of  timothy  survived. 

At  Fort  Vermilion,  Alberta,  orchard-grass  planted  in 
spring  was  completely  killed  the  succeeding  winter  when 
the  minimum  reached  was  23°  below  zero  Fahrenheit. 

178.  Soil  preferences.  —  While  orchard-grass  will  grow 
in  all  types  of  soils,  it  ordinarily  does  not  succeed  well  in 
sands  or  muck.     It  is  best  adapted  to  clays  or  clay  loams. 
It  is  not  averse  to  wet  soils,  but  prefers  a  moderate  amount 
of  moisture.     Fair  success  can  be  had  when  the  rainfall 
is  rather  scanty,  as  it  is  somewhat  more  resistant  to  drought 
than  is  timothy. 

179.  Adaptation  to  shade.  —  Orchard-grass  succeeds  so 
well  in  shady  places  that  this  peculiarity  has  given  rise 
to  one  of  its  common  names.     Its  adaptation  to  shade  has 
been  ascribed  as  due  partly  to  its  great  leanness  and  partly 
to  its  early  growth  before  the  trees  become  leafy.     How- 
ever, it  succeeds  apparently  as  well  in  the  shade  of  ever- 
greens as  of  deciduous  trees. 

Stebler  in  Switzerland  shaded  artificially  one  portion  of 
a  field  sown  to  a  mixture  of  grasses  and  determined  each 


ORCHARD-GRASS,    OAT-GRASS,    BROME-GRASSES     179 


year  the  percentage  of   each  grass.     The   percentage  of 
orchard-grass  each  year  was  as  follows  :  — • 


1903 

1904 

1905 

1906 

1907 

1908 

Not  shaded      .... 

0.5 

6.6 

17.6 

21.8 

23.3 

10.0 

Shaded    

1.7 

21.1 

34.4 

46.3 

40.9 

37.8 

The  percentage  increase  of  the  orchard-grass  due  to 
the  gradual  disappearance  of  the  other  grasses  was  more 
marked  in  the  shaded  than  in  the  unshaded  area. 

180.  Variability.  —  Orchard-grass  is   exceedingly  vari- 
able, not  less  so  than  timothy.     Numerous  varieties  can 
easily  be  selected  anywhere  from  thin  fields  and  from  the 
roadsides.     Cross-pollination    is    the   rule   so   that   such 
individual  plants  usually  give  rise  to   diverse  progeny. 
There  can  be  no  question  that  pure  strains  much  superior 
to  the  ordinary  mixed  progeny  can  easily  be  isolated.     It 
is  doubtful,  however,  if  the  importance  of  this  grass  in  the 
United  States  is  sufficient  to  justify  selection  and  the  care 
necessary  to  keep  strains  pure. 

181.  Advantages    and    disadvantages.  —  To    illustrate 
the  strong  and  weak  points  of  orchard-grass  it  may  be 
compared  with  timothy.     Orchard-grass  is  better  adapted 
to  conditions  southward  and  less  so  to  those  northward; 
it  is  less  well  suited  to  being  grown  in  pure  cultures,  owing 
to  its  bunchy  habit ;   it  can  be  cut  for  hay  much  earlier ; 
it  becomes  woody  after  full  bloom  much  more  rapidly  and 
markedly ;  the  cost  of  seed  per  acre  is  about  five  times  as 
large ;    the  spring  growth  is  more  abundant  and  much 
earlier ;    the  aftermath  is  much  greater,  often  producing 
a  second  crop  of  hay ;  the  plants  are  more  persistent  both 
in  meadows  and  pastures. 


180         FORAGE   PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

In  average  yield  of  hay  and  in  feeding  value,  there 
probably  is  but  little  difference,  but  the  market  pref- 
erence in  America  is  strongly  in  favor  of  timothy. 

.  182.  Importance.  —  Orchard-grass  is  probably  fourth 
or  fifth  in  importance  among  cultivated  perennial  hay 
grasses  in  America.  As  a  hay  grass  it  should  be  second 
or  third  in  importance,  as  southward  it  is  much  better 
adapted  than  timothy,  and  should  be  more  generally 
employed,  especially  in  mixtures. 

At  present,  orchard-grass  is  most  important  in  Kentucky, 
southern  Indiana,  Iowa,  North  Carolina,  Virginia,  West 
Virginia,  Maryland  and  western  Oregon. 

The  relative  importance  of  orchard-grass  is  much  higher 
in  Europe  than  in  America. 

183.  Seeding  of  orchard-grass. — Seed  may  be  sown 
both  in  the  fall  and  in  very  early  spring.  If  sown  in  the 
fall,  early  seedings  are  preferable  as  this  much  lessens  the 
danger  of  winter-killing.  In  the  seed-growing  sections,  it  is 
the  common  practice  to  sow  the  grass  in  February  in 
fall-sown  wheat,  and  it  is  often  sown  at  the  same  time  on 
ground  which  has  been  in  corn  during  the  previous  season. 
It  may  also  be  sown  with  spring  oats.  Whether  sown  in 
fall  or  in  spring,  the  first  year's  growth  rarely  yields  a 
crop  of  hay,  but  can  be  utilized  only  as  pasturage.  On 
this  account,  as  well  as  the  danger  of  winter-killing, 
spring  seedings  are  in  general  to  be  preferred. 

When  planting  for  a  seed  crop,  thin  seeding  is  desirable, 
and  for  this  purpose  one  bushel  of  seed,  which  weighs 
about  14  pounds,  is  commonly  used.  If  planted  for  hay, 
double  this  quantity  is  very  satisfactory  as  the  plants  are 
thicker  and  the  hay  less  coarse.  The  seed  does  not  feed 
well  through  a  drill  and  so  is  sown  by  hand  or  with  a 
wheelbarrow  or  other  type  of  seeder.  Very  shallow  cover- 


ORCHARD-GRASS,    OAT-GRASS,   BROME-GRASSES     181 

ing  of  the  seed  apparently  gives  the  best  results,  and  some- 
times it  is  broadcasted  with  subsequent  harrowing. 

For  Ohio  Williams  recommends  20  pounds  per  acre  for 
hay,  and  12  to  20  pounds  if  for  seed  production. 

Werner  recommends  35  pounds  in  Germany,  and  Stebler 
the  same  amount  in  Switzerland. 

184.  Life   history.  —  If   sown   in   spring   orchard-grass 
does  not  come  to  bloom  the  first  season.     Its  development 
is  very  slow  as  compared  to  other  grasses.     In  mixtures 
it  may  not  bloom  till  the  third  season. 

Orchard-grass  is  very  long-lived  and  persists  indefi- 
nitely when  once  planted.  Individual  plants  are  known 
to  live  eight  years  and  they  will  probably  live  much  longer. 

Where  orchard-grass  seed-production  is  carried  on, 
fields  are  usually  allowed  to  lay  five  to  seven  years. 

185.  Harvesting   for   hay.  —  Orchard-grass   should   be 
cut  for  hay  as  soon  as  it  reaches  full  bloom.     If  permitted 
to  stand  longer,  the  stems  become  much  more  woody. 
Its  period  of  maturity  is  usually  three  weeks  to  a  month 
earlier  than  that  of  timothy.     This  earlier  date  of  harvest- 
ing is  advantageous  in  the  case  of  land  badly  infested  with 
oxeye  daisy  and  fleabane,  as  these  weeds  have  not  ripened 
their  seed  at  the  time  orchard-grass  hay  is  cut,  and  con- 
sequent^ the  use  of  orchard-grass  tends  to  free  the  land 
of  these  weeds. 

After  the  first  crop  of  hay  has  been  harvested  orchard- 
grass  produces  a  rapid  and  abundant  second  growth, 
which  consists  largely  of  leaves,  the  culms  being  com- 
paratively few.  This  second  growth  is  much  greater  than 
that  of  any  other  hay  grass  adapted  to  temperate  condi- 
tions. The  yield  of  hay  from  the  second  crop  is  usually 
smaller  than  the  first. 

Even  when  the  first  crop  is  cut  for  seed,  the  second 


182        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 


growth  often  makes  a  fair  crop  of  hay  by  the  end  oi 
August  or  early  September. 

186.  Yields  of  hay. — While  orchard-grass  is  best 
suited  for  sowing  in  mixture,  it  will  when  seeded  alone 
usually  yield  about  as  well  as  timothy. 

The  yield  of  dry  matter  at  the  Illinois  Experiment 
Station  was  found  to  be  2642  pounds  an  acre  when  in  full 
bloom  and  3232  when  the  seeds  were  in  the  milk. 

Yields  in  pounds  per  acre  have  been  reported  by  Ameri- 
can experiment  stations  as  follows  :  Ohio,  2197  ;  Kansas, 
2809;  Illinois,  2800;  Michigan,  2080;  Idaho,  5280; 
Arlington  Farm,  Virginia,  2880;  North  Carolina,  1554; 
Arkansas,  3188. 

In  Europe  yields  have  been  reported  as  follows  :  Sinclair 
in  England,  11,685  pounds;  Pinckert  in  Germany,  3520 
pounds  ;  Vianne  in  France,  15,570  pounds. 

Orchard-grass  was  grown  continuously  on  two  plots  at 
the  Michigan  Experiment  Station  from  1897  to  1905.  The 
yield  by  acre  in  pounds  on  the  two  plots  was  as  follows  :  — 


YEAR 

1897 

1898 

1899 

1900 

1901 

1902 

1903 

1904 

1905 

Yields  .     .     .     .  j 

3000 
3000 

258 
183 

1750 
2250 

2760 
3620 

2150 
2900 

1500 
2150 

2230 
2970 

2250 
2330 

1640 
2620 

After  plowing  up  the  sod  in  1906,  the  plots  were  cropped 
to  corn  in  1906,  oats  in  1907  and  wheat  in  1908.  Heavier 
yields  were  secured  on  these  plots  than  on  plots  that  had 
been  in  fallow  continuously  or  on  others  which  had  been 
planted  to  regular  rotations  mostly  including  clover. 
The  yield  of  the  orchard-grass  for  the  last  seven  years  was 
quite  uniform. 

For  yields  under  irrigation  see  Par.  41. 


ORCHARD-GRASS,    OAT-GRASS,   BROME^GRASSES     183 

187.  Harvesting     orchard-grass     for     seed.  —  In     the 
United  States  most  of  the  seed  is  grown  in  the  counties  of 
Jefferson,  Oldham  and  Shelby  in  Kentucky,  Clark  County, 
Indiana,    Clinton  and   Highland   Counties,  Ohio,  and  in 
northern  Virginia.     The  average  yield  an  acre,  as  reported 
by  the  better   farmers,  is   ten  to   twelve  bushels.     Har- 
vesting usually  begins  about  the  middle  of  June,  the  crop 
being  ready  for  cutting  as  soon  as  the  seeds  become  straw- 
colored.     This  is  easily  detected  by  bending  the  heads 
in  the  palm  of  the  hand,  and  if.  some  of  the  seeds  shatter 
out,  it  is  ready  to  cut.     The  grass  is  practically  always 
harvested  with  an  ordinary  grain  binder,  care  being  taken 
to  make  small  bundles  so  as  to  facilitate  rapid  curing. 
The  bundles  are  commonly  placed  three  in  a  shock,  which 
is  tied  with  two  bands  of  straw  so  as  to  hold  the  bundles 
firmly  and  prevent  the  seed  from  shattering.     Depending 
on  the  weather,  the  shocks  are  left  in  the  field  up  to  four 
weeks    before    they    are    cured    thoroughly.     Thrashing 
usually  takes  place  directly  from  the  field.     As  a  rule  the 
grass  is  cut  high  so  as  to  avoid  low-growing  weeds,  and 
also  because  the  undergrowth  is  thus  left  for  subsequent 
pasturing  or  to  be  cut  as  hay.     The  thrashing  is  done  with 
an  ordinary  grain  thrasher,  but  using  special  riddles  and 
but  little  wind. 

188.  Weeds.  —  The  most  troublesome  weeds  in  orchard- 
grass  fields  in  the  states  where  the  seed  is  mainly  grown 
are  whiteweed  (Erigeron  strigosus  and  E.  annuus) ;  sorrel 
(Rumex  acetosella) ;  oxeye  daisy  (Chrysanthemum  Leucan- 
themum) ;    milfoil  (Achillcea  Mittefolium) ;    and  buckhorn 
(Plantago  lanceolata) . 

Some  seed  growers  cut  out  these  weeds  with  a  hoe 
before  the  crop  of  orchard-grass  is  harvested,  but  this 
method  is  expensive.  Spraying  with  weed-killing  chem- 


184        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

icals  has  been  used  to  a  small  extent,  but  is  not  very 
satisfactory. 

A  much  better  method  is  to  use  sheep  to  keep  the  weeds 
down.  These  animals  may  be  turned  in  the  field  as  soon 
as  the  grass  begins  to  grow  in  spring,  and  allowed  to  remain 
until  harvest  time,  but  many  growers  remove  them  in 
early  May.  As  the  orchard-grass  matures,  the  sheep  eat 
but  little  of  it,  but  graze  principally  on  the  weeds,  especially 
white  weed.  They  do  very  little  damage  to  the  grass 
when  it  is  dry  but  should  be  removed  during  wet  weather. 
Even  when  sheep  stampede  through  a  field  nearly  ripe 
but  few  culms  are  broken.  This  is  due  to  the  bunching 
habit  of  the  orchard-grass  which  leaves  room  between 
the  plants  for  the  feet  of  the  sheep,  and  the  stout 
stems  are  seldom  injured.  Cattle  are  not  nearly  as 
satisfactory  as  sheep,  for  they  trample  down  too  much 
of  the  grass. 

189.  Seed.  —  Orchard-grass  seed  is  often  adulterated 
with  that  of  meadow  fescue  and  perennial  rye-grass,  both 
of  which  resemble  it  rather  closely,  and  both  of  which  are 
much  cheaper.  Orchard-grass  seed,  however,  may  be 
readily  distinguished  from  these  two  by  the  slightly 
smaller  size  and  the  awn-pointed  apex  of  the  lemma, 
which  in  both  of  the  others  is  merely  acute  (Fig.  18). 

The  best  quality  of  seed  reaches  a  purity  of  95-98  per 
cent  and  a  viability  of  98-99  per  cent.  Germination  is 
complete  in  14  days.  The  seed  deteriorates  but  little 
the  first  year,  but  thereafter  more  rapidly,  so  that  when 
four  years  old  it  is  worthless. 

A  bushel  weighs  from  12  to  22  pounds,  the  usual  legal 
weight  being  14  pounds.  One  pound  contains,  according 
to  different  authorities,  579,500  seeds  (Stebler),  426,000 
seeds  (Hunter),  400,000  to  480,000  seeds  (Hunt). 


ORCHARD-GRASS,    OAT-GRASS,   BROME-GRASSES     185 

190.  Sources  of  seed.  —  Commercial  seed  of  orchard- 
grass  is  most  largely  grown  in  the  United  States  .and  in 
New  Zealand,  but  some  seed  is  produced  in  Europe 
(southern  France,  Germany,  Hungary,  Holland,  etc.). 
New  Zealand  seed  is  sometimes  imported  into  the  United 
States  in  considerable  quantity.  No  American  experi- 
ments, however,  have  been  reported  as  to  the  relative 


FIG.  18.  —  Mixture  of  seeds  of  orchard-grass  (a),  meadow  fescue  grass 
(b)  and  English  rye-grass  (c).  The  orchard-grass  seeds  are  distinguished 
from  the  others  by  their  slender,  curved  form.  The  meadow  fescue  and 
rye-grass  seeds  are  distinguished  by  the  difference  in  the  section  of  the 
seed-cluster  axis  (rachilla  segment)  which  each  bears.  (Enlarged.) 

yield  obtained  from  seed  from  different  sources.  In  plots 
grown  side  by  side  in  Virginia  the  New  Zealand  strain  was 
distinctly  shorter  and  apparently  inferior  by  about  20 
per  cent. 

Under  Swiss  conditions,  Stebler  reports  that  French 
seed  gives  the  most  satisfactory  results,  but  American  is 
scarcely  inferior,  though  a  little  later ;  in  two  out  of  five 
trials  the  American  outyielded  the  French  strain.  Seed 


186         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

from  Switzerland,  Holland  and  Germany  gave  in  each 
case  practically  as  good  results  as  that  from  France. 
The  New  Zealand  strain  proved  inferior  to  the  French  in 
six  trials.  It  proved  to  be  slower  in  growth  and  somewhat 
less  winter  hardy. 

At  three  experiment  stations  in  Denmark,  tests  were 
conducted  for  three  years  to  determine  the  amount  of  hay 
produced  from  seed  from  different  sources;  namely, 
United  States,  Denmark,  Germany,  France,  Sweden, 
Australia  and  New  Zealand.  The  American  strain  was 
slightly  superior  to  the  European  at  two  of  the  stations. 
The  Australian  and  New  Zealand  strains  showed  a  smaller 
yield  by  about  20  per  cent. 

191.  Utilization    of    stubble    and    aftermath.  —  Among 
orchard-grass  seed  growers,  there  is  much  difference  of 
opinion  as  to  the  utilization  of  the  stubble  and  aftermath, 
especially  as  to  its  effect  upon  the  next  year's  seed  crop. 
A  common  practice  is  to  cut  the  stubble  and  aftermath 
in  the  latter  part  of  August  and  to  utilize  it  for  hay,  but 
some  farmers  allow  it  to  lie  on  the  field  as  a  mulch.     Some 
farmers  cut  the  stubble  as  soon  as  possible  after  seed  har- 
vest, while  others  believe  it  is  best  to  leave  both  the  stubble 
and  aftermath  uncut. 

Pasturing  the  stubble  and  aftermath  is  a  very  common 
practice  and  if  done  judiciously,  especially  with  sheep,  is 
believed  not  only  not  to  lessen  the  next  season's  crop  but 
even  to  cause  an  increase. 

192.  Mixtures.  —  Orchard-grass,    excepting    for    seed 
production,  is  seldom  sown  alone  as  the  bunchy  nature 
of  the  grass  does  not  fully  utilize  the  ground.     One  of  the 
most  satisfactory  mixtures  is  orchard-grass,  tall  meadow 
oat-grass  and  alsike  clover,  in  the  following  proportions : 
10  pounds  of  orchard-grass,  20  pounds  of  tall  meadow  oat- 


ORCHARD-GRASS,    OAT-GRASS,   BROME-GRASSES     187 

grass,  4  pounds  of  alsike  clover.  The  tall  meadow  oat- 
grass  matures  with  the  orchard-grass,  and  at  this  time  a 
satisfactory  growth  of  the  alsike  clover  has  also  been  made. 
On  much  of  the  area  south  of  the  Potomac  and  Ohio 
rivers,  this  mixture  yields  much  more  satisfactory  crops 
than  timothy  and  red  clover. 

Another  mixture  commonly  used  is  orchard-grass  and 
red  clover,  which  is  very  satisfactory  wherever  red  clover 
succeeds  well.  In  this  mixture,  orchard-grass  is  sown  at 
the  usual  rate  and  about  10  pounds  of  red  clover  used  to 
the  acre.  This  mixture  is  often  used  where  the  orchard- 
grass  is  grown  mainly  for  seed,  as  the  clover  interferes  but 
little  with  the  harvesting  of  the  seed  crop,  and  adds  greatly 
to  the  subsequent  crop  of  hay  or  pasturage. 

193.  Pasturage    value.  —  Orchard-grass    should    be    a 
constituent  of  pastures   wherever  this  grass  will  grow. 
Especially  is  this  true  on  account  of  its  ability  to  grow  in 
cool  weather,   as  it  will  furnish  the  earliest  and  latest 
pasturage  in  the  season.     Furthermore,  it  succeeds  best 
under  heavy  grazing,  and  produces  a  continuous  succession 
of  3roung  leaves.     The  most  serious  objection  to  it  as  a 
pasture  grass  is  that,  during  unfavorable  soil  conditions, 
the  plants  are  apt  to  be  pulled  out  of  the  ground  by  pastur- 
ing animals.     Where  it  forms  only  a  portion  of  the  pasture 
mixture,  however,  there  is  but  little  difficulty  from  this 
source. 

Cattle  graze  upon  it  quite  as  readily  as  upon  timothy, 
but  prefer  Kentucky  blue-grass  to  both. 

194.  Feed  value.  —  No  American  feeding  experiments 
with   orchard-grass   hay    have    been    reported.      Judged 
wholly  by  its  chemical  analysis  and  digestibility,  orchard- 
grass  should  be  considerably  more  nutritious  than  timothy 
hay,   and  many  farmers  consider  that  this  is  the  case 


188        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

both  for  horses  and  cows.  There  is  considerable  market 
prejudice  against  it,  however,  on  account  of  its  relative 
coarseness. 

195.  Value  as  a  soil  binder.  —  Orchard-grass  is  com- 
monly recognized   as   exceedingly  valuable   to   plant   in 
places  where  the  soil  is  likely  to  wash.     Thus,  planted  in 
rills  with  rye  as  a  nurse  crop,  it  has  proven  very  effective 
in  preventing  further  washing.     Its  effectiveness  is  ap- 
parently more  due  to  the  large  tussocks  that  it  makes  than 
to  any  other  one  character. 

Orchard-grass  has  deeper  roots  than  most  grasses. 
Ten  Eyck  at  the  Kansas  Experiment  Station  found  that 
the  root  system  of  a  large  plant  extended  to  a  depth  of  3| 
feet.  The  root  mass  was  very  dense  in  the  top  6  inches, 
but  below  10  inches  rapidly  became  thinner. 

At  the  Arkansas  Experiment  Station  the  total  weight 
of  the  roots  was  found  to  be  equal  to  the  tops.  Fifty 
per  cent  of  the  roots  were  in  the  top  12  inches  and  90  per 
cent  in  the  top  30  inches. 

196.  Improvement    by    selection.  —  Orchard-grass    is 
decidedly  variable,    apparently  more   so   than   timothy. 
The  contrasting  characters  are  easily  seen  when  vegeta- 
tively  propagated  rows  are  grown  in  a  nursery.     Marked 
differences  are  apparent  in  height,  coarseness,  leanness, 
color,  earliness,  number  of  culms,  length  of  leaves,  etc. 

In  recent  years  the  study  of  these  variations  with  the 
object  of  developing  improved  strains  has  received  at- 
tention both  in  America  and  in  Europe. 

197.  Pests.  —  Orchard-grass  is  but  little  troubled  by 
insects  or  diseases.     Occasionally  rust  is  found  in  small 
quantity.     A  very  common  trouble,  however,  is  the  tip 
burn  of  the  leaves,  a  characteristic  trouble  of  the  grass, 
which  seems  not  to  have  been  scientifically  investigated. 


ORCHARD-GRASS,   OAT-GRASS,  BROME-GRASSES     189 


TALL    OAT-GRASS 

198.  Names. — -Tall    oat-grass    (Arrhenatherum   elatius) 
is  known  also  as  tall  meadow  oat-grass,  tall  oat-grass, 
false  oat-grass,  French 

rye-grass  and,  in  the 
South,  evergreen  grass. 
The  French  name,  fro- 
mental,  has  become 
much  used  in  Germany 
and  Switzerland,  and  is 
advocated  by  Stebler 
as  a  convenient  and 
distinctive  name  for 
general  adoption. 
Synonyms  of  the  sci- 
entific name  are  Ar- 
rhenatherum avenaceum 
and  Avena  elatior. 

199.  Botany.  —  Tall 
oat-grass    is  native  to 
southern    Europe   and 
northern    Africa,    but 
ranges    eastward    into 
Persia.      It     is     quite 
variable,    eight    varie- 
ties   being    considered 
distinguishable  by  Eu- 
ropean botanists. 

The  most  noteworthy  variety  is  tuberosa  which  bears 
a  number  of  bulbs  at  base  like  a  string  of  small  onions  and 
is  therefore  called  Onion  Couch.  This  is  sparingly  intro- 
duced in  the  United  States.  In  Europe  it  occurs  mainly 


FIG.  19.  —  Tall  oat-grass  (Arrhena- 
therum elatius).  a,  spikelet;  b,  the  two 
florets. 


190        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 

on  poor  pasture  lands  and  not  in  fields  of  tall  oat-grass. 
Under  some  conditions  it  has  been  found  in  Great  Britain 
troublesome  as  a  weed.  Some  botanists  have  considered 
that  the  bulbs  are  abnormal  and  produced  by  a  parasite, 
but  the  variety  breeds  true  to  seed.  Stebler  and  Volkart 
report  that  in  small  plots  it  yielded  less  than  half  as  much 
hay  as  tall  oat-grass. 

Other  varieties  are  subhirsuta  with  sparsely  hairy 
sheaths ;  biaristata  with  both  florets  of  each  spikelet  bear- 
ing awns ;  flavescens  with  the  spikelets  yellow  instead  of 
pale  green;  and  hermaphrodita  with  the  spikelets  some- 
times 3-flowered,  and  all  the  florets  perfect. 

200.  Agricultural    history.  —  Tall    oat-grass    was    ad- 
vocated for  culture  by  Kalm  in  Sweden  in  1747.     Accord- 
ing to  Schreber,  however,  it  was  first  cultivated  by  Abbe 
Miroudet  in  France,  in  1760,  but  Stebler  and  Volkart  state 
that  it  was  probably  cultivated  in  southern  France  before 
that  time  and  it  was  commended  by  Stapf er  for  cultivation 
in  Switzerland  in  1762.     It  was  cultivated  in  Massachu- 
setts as  early  as  1807  and  in  South  Carolina  in  1824. 

201.  Adaptations.  —  Tall     oat-grass     is     adapted     to 
about   the   same   climatic   conditions    as    orchard-grass; 
that  is,  it  will  not  endure  as  much  cold  as  timothy,  but 
will  withstand  greater  summer  heat. 

It  is  one  of  the  most  drought  resistant  of  all  cultivated 
grasses,  being  excelled  in  this  respect  only  by  brome-grass 
and  western  wheat-grass.  Wet  soils  are  distinctly  in- 
jurious and  tall  oat-grass  will  not  endure  on  such  land. 
It  does  well  under  irrigation,  provided  the  subsoil  be  well 
drained. 

It  thrives  best  on  loose,  deep  loams  and  calcareous 
soils,  but  succeeds  also  on  sandy  and  gravelly  soils.  Per- 
haps no  other  perennial  grass  will  yield  as  well  on  very 


ORCHARD-GRASS,    OAT-GRASS,   BROME-GRASSES     191 

poor  land.  Nevertheless  its  yields  are  greatly  increased 
by  the  use  of  fertilizers. 

It  does  not  grow  well  in  shade,  but  rapidly  disappears. 
For  this  reason,  it  should  never  be  sown  with  a  nurse  crop, 
as  both  the  thickness  and  the  vigor  of  the  stand  is  much 
lessened  thereby.  For  the  same  reason  it  is  injured  in 
mixtures  by  any  grass  which  shades  the  ground  too  much. 

Tall  oat-grass  is  primarily  a  hay  grass.  Frequent 
cuttings  reduce  the  total  yield  greatly,  and  under  pasturing 
the  return  is  comparatively  small. 

In  the  Southern  States  tall  oat-grass  remains  green  the 
whole  year,  whence  it  has  been  called  evergreen  grass. 
It  languishes,  however,  in  midsummer  in  the  moist  region 
near  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

202.  Importance.  —  Tall  oat-grass  is  not  an  important 
grass  in  America.     In  continental  Europe  it  is  considered 
one  of  the  best  grasses  and  is  commonly  grown,  especially 
in  France.     In  England  it   has  never  been  much  used. 
To  some  extent  the  grass  is  cultivated  in  Australia.     In 
the  United  States  it  is  mostly  employed  on  poor  or  gravelly 
land  and  near  the  southern  limit  of  timothy  production. 
In  experiments  continued  over  several  years  at  Arlington 
Farm,  Virginia,  a  mixture  of  this  grass  with  orchard-grass 
and  alsike  clover  was  found  to  be  far- more  productive  on 
relatively  poor  land  than  any  other  perennial  grass  or 
grass  mixture.     This  mixture  has  recently  been  received 
with  much  favor  in  South  Carolina,  and  for  much  of  the 
area  south  of  the  timothy  region  is  probably  the  best 
combination  of  perennial  grasses  for  hay  meadows.     For 
this  reason  the  grass  seems  destined  to   increase   in  im- 
portance. 

203.  Characteristics.  —  Tall   oat-grass   is  a  long-lived, 
deep-rooted  perennial.     It  is  strictly  a  bunch  grass,  all 


192        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 

the  new  shoots  being  produced  intravaginally  and  grow- 
ing perfectly  erect.  The  lowermost  joint  may,  however, 
be  elbowed,  due  to  resistance  encountered  by  the  young 
shoot  when  developing  through  the  old  tuft.  The  stems 
grow  to  a  height  of  about  4  feet,  rarely  6  feet.  The 
panicle  is  pyramidal,  loose  and  pale  green,  more  nearly 
resembling  that  of  the  oat  than  any  other  cultivated  per- 
ennial grass.  The  spikelets  bear  two  florets,  the  lower 
bearing  a  long,  twisted  and  elbowed  awn  from  its  base. 

In  mixtures  where  tall  oat  is  not  shaded  by  other  grasses, 
it  maintains  itself  well  for  five  years  or  even  more.  The 
hay  is  somewhat  bitter  in  taste  and  on  this  and  other 
accounts  it  is  better  grown  in  mixtures.  At  Arlington 
Farm,  Virginia,  however,  horses  ate  pure  hay  of  tall  oat- 
grass  readily,  and  most  American  experiment  stations 
have  reported  that  animals  eat  it  well.  Its  supposed  un- 
palatability  is  probably  exaggerated  and,  as  in  similar  cases, 
it  is  presumably  easy  to  accustom  animals  to  its  taste. 

204.  Seeding.  —  Tall   oat-grass,    whether   sown   alone 
or  in  mixtures,  is  best  sown  in  the  spring  in  the  North, 
but  in  the  South  early  fall  seeding  is  preferable.      In  Ten- 
nessee the  best  time  is  the  latter  half  of  September  or  else 
March  and  April.     A  well-prepared  firm  seed  bed  is  most 
desirable.     The  seed  is  rather  large  and  deep  seeding  is 
important,  about  1  inch  in  moist  soil  and  1J  inches  when 
dry. 

European  authorities  recommend  for  one  acre,  if  sown 
alone,  80  pounds  of  seed  germinating  50  per  cent ;  that  is, 
about  40  pounds  of  viable  seed. 

205.  Hay.  —  Tall    oat-grass    should    be    cut    for    hay 
promptly  when  it  blooms,  as  thereafter  the  stems  rapidly 
become  more  woody.     It  cures  into    hay  more  readily 
than  most  other  grasses. 


ORCHARD-GRASS,    OAT-GRASS,   BROME-GRASSES     193 

On  rich  soils  it  may  be  cut  as  many  as  three  or  four  times 
in  a  season,  but  on  poor  soils  but  once  or  twice.  The  first 
cutting  is  nearly  always  the  largest.  The  yield  the  second 
year  is  nearly  always  the  heaviest. 

European  authorities  have  recorded  the  following  hay 
yields  to  the  acre  :  Pinckert,  6340  pounds  secured  from  two 
cuttings  ;  Sprengel,  8800  pounds.  Karmrodt  in  Germany 
secured  from  the  same  plot  in  four  successive  years  yields 
at  the  rate  respectively  of  6468,  15,268,  10,384  and  7524 
pounds  to  the  acre. 

Yields  to  the  acre  in  pounds  have  been  reported  from 
American  experiment  stations  as  follows  :  North  Carolina, 
2994 ;  Louisiana,  3400  ;  Kentucky,  8160 ;  North  Dakota, 
3220 ;  South  Dakota,  2083 ;  Ohio,  2247,  6-year  average ; 
Kansas,  2453,  4-year  average;  Illinois,  5480;  Arlington 
Farm,  Virginia,  3720 ;  Michigan  (Upper  Peninsula), 
5680;  Utah,  2691 ;  Idaho,  5760;  Ontario  (Guelph),  5520, 
7-year  average. 

In  general  about  3  pounds  of  the  green  grass  make 
1  pound  of  hay. 

206.  Seed-production.  —  The  seed  of  tall  oat-grass  is 
mostly  grown  in  Europe  (France,  Tyrol,  Switzerland, 
Bohemia)  but  some  is  produced  in  Virginia.  Spillman 
states  that  at  the  Washington  Experiment  Station  it 
shattered  very  readily  within  24  hours  after  it  began  to 
ripen.  On  the  contrary,  Stebler  says  the  growing  of  seed 
in  Europe  is  very  profitable  because  it  yields  well,  is 
easily  harvested  and  commands  a  good  price.  It  is  ready 
to  cut  for  seed  when  the  panicles  turn  yellowish  and  the 
grain  can  be  broken  by  the  finger  nail.  It  is  better, 
however,  to  cut  too  early  than  too  late  to  avoid  loss  by 
shattering.  If  a  binder  is  used  in  harvesting,  early  cutting 
is  necessary. 

o 


194        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR    CULTURE 

The  yield  of  seed  to  the  acre  in  Europe  is  given  by  Pinck- 
ert  as  880  pounds;  by  Walker,  as  88  to  132  pounds; 
by  Michalowski  as  the  average  of  4  years,  328  pounds; 
by  Jung,  880  pounds,  when  grown  on  a  large  scale ;  and 
by  Werner  as  724  to  880  pounds. 

Tall  oat-grass  is  frequently  infested  with  a  smut  (Usti- 
lago  perennans)  which  destroys  the  attacked  seeds. 

207.  Seed.  —  The  seed  of  tall  oat-grass  weighs  10  to  16 
pounds  per  bushel.     It  loses  viability  quite  rapidly  after 
the   first   year,    and   by  the  fourth    year   is    practically 
worthless.     In  common  with  other  grass  seeds  for  which 
there  is  small  demand  in  America,  seed  is  quite  likely  to  be 
old  or  else  mixed  with  old  seeds. 

The  percentage  of  impurities  in  tall  oat-grass  seed  is 
rather  large,  on  the  average  20  per  cent,  but  the  other 
seeds  are  commonly  those  of  other  grasses  which  occur 
in  fields,  such  as  orchard-grass  and  meadow  fescue,  but 
there  is  often  considerable  cockle  (Agrostemma  githago) 
present.  One  pound  contains  about  150,000  (138,000  to 
159,000)  seeds. 

208.  Mixtures.  —  Tall  oat-grass  should  rarely  be  sown 
alone  unless  for  the  purpose  of  seed  production.     Among 
the  reasons  for  growing  it  in  mixtures  are  its  bunch  habit, 
its  relative  lack  of  palatability,  the  cost  of  the  seed  and 
the  fact  that  it  is  primarily  a  top  grass.     It  must  not, 
however,  be  sown  in  mixtures  containing  much  Italian 
rye-grass  or  other  grasses  which  grow  more  rapidly  and 
thus  injure  the  tall  oat  seedlings  by  shading ;   nor  should 
it  be  sown  with  grasses  that  mature  distinctly  earlier 
or  later,  as  tall  oat-grass  should  be  cut  when  in  bloom. 
It  is  early  and  blooms  about  10  days  sooner  than  red 
clover.     European  authorities  recommend  that  only  10- 
20  per  cent  of  tall  oat-grass  should  be  used  in  mixtures, 


ORCHARD-GRASS,    OAT-GRASS,   BROME-GRASSES     195 

but  a  larger  percentage  has  not  been  found  disadvantageous 
in  America. 

The  best  grasses  and  clovers  for  mixing  with  tall  oat- 
grass  are  orchard-grass,  meadow  fescue,  alsike  and  red 
clover.  In  the  region  south  of  the  best  area  for  timothy 
and  red  clover  the  so-called  Arlington  mixture  has  been 
found  especially  good,  the  amount  indicated  to  be  sown 
on  one  acre  :  — 

Orchard-grass 0     ...     10  pounds 

Tall  oat-grass 20  pounds 

Alsike  clover 4  pounds 

BROME-GRASS 

209.  Names  and  description.  —  Brome-grass   (Bromus 
inermis)  is   also   called   smooth   brome    awnless    brome, 
Hungarian  brome,  Russian  brome  and  Austrian  brome. 

It  is  a  long-lived  perennial  grass,  enduring  according 
to  Werner  12  to  13  years.  Each  plant  produces  many 
underground  rootstocks  and  thus  mats  a  foot  or  more  in 
diameter  are  formed.  Single  plants  under  favorable 
conditions  grow  to  a  height  of  about  4  feet,  and  each  one 
may  possess  100  to  200  culms.  The  basal  leaves  are 
numerous,  and  the  lower  half  of  each  culm  may  bear  5  or 
6  leaves. 

After  two  or  three  years  it  forms  a  dense  sod  and  there- 
after without  special  treatment  the  plants  form  but  few 
culms.  This  characteristic  makes  it  better  suited  for 
permanent  pastures  than  for  hay  production. 

210.  Botany.  —  Bromus  inermis  is  native  to  much  of 
Europe  and  extends  through  Siberia  to  China.     Botani- 
cally  it  is  not  very  variable,  though  five  or  six  varieties 
have    been    deemed    worthy    of    botanical    designations. 
Among  these  varieties  are  pellitus  with  lower  leaves  and 


196        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 


sheaths  hairy;  divaricatus  with  triangular  pyramidal 
panicles  and  small  spikelets ;  pauciflorus  with  small  3-4- 
flowered  spikelets ;  and  aristatus  with  the  lemma  short- 

awned.  Very  closely 
related  but  perhaps 
distinct  is  Bromus 
Reimanni  with  short 
leaves  and  small 
panicles. 

211.  Agricultural 
history.  -  -  Brome- 
grass  was  first  culti- 
vated, according  to 
Schreber,  in  1769  as 
a  pasture  grass.  It 
is  not,  however,  an 
important  grass  in 
Europe,  being  grown 
mainly  in  Hungary 
and  Russia. 

It  was  introduced 
into  the  United  States 
prior  to  1884  by  the 
California  Experi- 
ment Station.  It 

FIG.  20.  —  Brome-grass    (Bromus  incrmis) .    has    met    with     most 
a,  spikelet;   b,  floret,  dorsal  view ;    c,  floret,    favor    m    the     region 

west    of     the     95th 

meridian  and  north  of  latitude  36°,  especially  as  a  grass 
for  unirrigated  lands.  In  North  and  South  Dakota 
and  in  the  Columbia  Basin  brome-grass  attained  con- 
siderable prominence,  but  in  recent  years  its  cultiva- 
tion has  slowly  diminished.  More  of  it  has  been 


ORCHARD-GRASS,    OAT-GRASS,   BROME-GRASSES    197 

grown  in  the    Dakotas    and  in  Manitoba  than  in  any 
other  region. 

212.  Adaptations.  —  Brome-grass  is  especially  adapted 
to  regions  of  rather  low  rainfall  and  moderate  summer 
temperatures.     High  summer  temperatures  and  humidity 
are  both  adverse.      In  trial  plots  the  grass  has  succeeded 
well  enough  in  the  region  of  timothy  and  red  clover,  but 
has  not  attained  popularity. 

It  prefers  rich  loams  and  clay  loams,  but  has  succeeded 
well  in  sandy  soils.  No  other  cultivated  perennial  grass 
has  shown  a  higher  degree  of  drought  resistance. 

Brome  endures  winter  cold  remarkably  well  and  no 
instances  of  winter  injury  have  been  reported  even  in 
North  Dakota.  At  Kenai,  Alaska,  it  succeeds  fairly  well 
except  in  very  moist  summers. 

213.  Depth  of  roots.  —  Shepperd  at  the  North  Dakota 
Experiment  Station  found  that  one-year-old  plants  had 
roots  4  feet  deep,  and  two-year-old  plants  5J  feet.     At  the 
same  station  brome  roots  were  found  to  be  5  to  6  feet 
deep  when  timothy  roots  reached  only  3J  feet. 

Ten  Eyck  at  the  Kansas  Experiment  Station  found  roots 
to  a  depth  of  4J  feet,  at  which  depth  solid  rock  prevented 
further  penetration,  but  the  roots  had  spread  over  the  rock 
in  a  large  mass. 

214.  Method  of  seeding.  —  In  the  regions  where  it  is 
most  grown,  brome-grass  is  nearly  always  seeded  in  early 
spring  on  a  well-prepared  seed  bed.     Fall  plowing  in  some 
places  is  preferable  as  it  insures  a  better  supply  of  moisture. 
The  surface  of  the  seed  bed  should  be  well  firmed  by  harrow- 
ing, and  rolling  is  also  desirable. 

Where  the  rainfall  is  sufficient  the  grass  is  often  sown 
with  a  nurse  crop  —  wheat,  oats,  barley  or  spelt.  The 
grass  seed  does  not  feed  well  through  a  drill,  so  it  is  usually 


198        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR    CULTURE 

broadcasted  after  the  grain  has  been  drilled,  and  then 
covered  by  harrowing  crosswise  to  the  drill  rows. 

In  regions  where  fall-sown  timothy  will  succeed,  brome- 
grass  may  be  sown  in  fall  either  with  or  without  wheat, 
or  the  brome-grass  may  be  sown  alone  in  late  summer. 

At  the  Nebraska  Experiment  Station  in  1902  brome- 
grass  was  sown  March  24,  April  8  and  21,  May  7  and  19, 
August  7  and  19,  September  15,  October  1  and  21.  All 
produced  good  stands  except  the  last  seeding  which  was 
winter-killed. 

215.  Rate  of  seeding  brome-grass.  —  The  usual  rate 
of  seeding  is  1  bushel  (14  pounds)  to  the  acre,  but  under 
favorable  conditions  10  pounds  is  sufficient.     Where  only 
pasture  is  desired  a  double  quantity  of  seed  is  often  used, 
as  a  dense  stand  will  permit  of  grazing  sooner.     At  the 
Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  32  pounds  to  the  acre  gave 
much  better  results  than  16  or  24  pounds,  but  in  all  cases 
the  yield  was  small.     The  North  Dakota  and  Nebraska 
Experiment  Stations  recommend  20  pounds  to  the  acre. 

According  to  Werner,  brome  is  sown  in  Europe  at  the 
rate  of  55  kg.  to  the  hectare ;  that  is,  48  pounds  to  the  acre. 

216.  Time   to   cut  for   hay.  —  Brome-grass  is  usually 
cut  for  hay  just  after  full  bloom  at  the  stage  called  "  the 
purple."     There   is   a   considerable   period,    however,   in 
which  it  may  be  cut  with  apparently  little  effect  on  the  hay. 

Under  favorable  conditions  of  moisture  two  cuttings 
can  be  obtained,  the  first  in  June  or  July,  the  second  in 
September.  The  second  crop  produces  but  few  culms, 
and  the  yield  is  much  smaller. 

The  hay  cures  less  readily  than  timothy  and  is  more 
easily  injured  by  unfavorable  weather. 

At  the  North  Dakota  Experiment  Station  brome- 
grass  cut  at  three  different  dates,  June  21,  June  25  and 


ORCHARD-GRASS,    OAT-GRASS,   BROME-GRASSES     199 

July  9,  gave  respectively  5637,  6456  and  7632  pounds 
to  the  acre  green  substance,  or  2290,  2462  and  2802  pounds 
dry  substance.  At  the  first  date  the  grass  was  in  bloom ; 
at  the  second  in  the  milk  stage ;  and  at  the  third  fully 
mature. 

217.  Hay.  —  The   yield    of   hay   from   brome-grass   is 
usually  small  the  first  year,  good  the  second  year  and  best 
the  third  year.     Thereafter  it  falls  off  rapidly  unless  given 
special  treatment.     The  average  yield  of  hay  is  about 
1J  tons  to  the  acre,  the  maximum  about  3J  tons.     Yields  to 
the  acre  have  been  reported  from  many  experiment  sta- 
tions, as  follows  :  Ohio,  2900  pounds  in  1905,  5960  pounds 
in    1910 ;     Wisconsin,    4200  pounds ;    Michigan   (Upper 
Peninsula),  4295  and  3285  pounds  ;  Nebraska,  4640 pounds 
in  1900,  2640  in  1903 ;   Kansas,  6016  pounds,  average  for 
4 years  ;  Colorado  (San  Luis  Valley),  3713  pounds ;  Idaho, 
5600  pounds ;    Wyoming,  4400  pounds ;    South  Dakota, 
third,  fourth  and  fifth  seasons,  3720,  3632  and  7680  pounds 
respectively ;    North  Dakota,   Fargo,  2520  pounds,   and 
Dickinson,    2520  pounds,    average    for   2  years ;    Indian 
Head,  Saskatchewan,  average  of  18  yields  in  10  years, 
2622  pounds ;    Brandon,  Manitoba,  average  of  6  yields 
in  4  years,  4100  pounds. 

For  yield  under  irrigation  see  Par.  41. 

218.  Fertilizers.  —  But  few  fertilizer  experiments  have 
been  made  on  brome-grass.     Barnyard  manure  is  nearly 
always  helpful,  if  available.     Manured  and  unmanured 
plots  yielded  respectively  2012  and  1242  pounds  per  acre 
at  Dickinson,  N.D.,  and  5500  and  3920  pounds  per  acre 
at  Fargo,  N.D. 

At  the  Nebraska  Experiment  Station  a  small  plot  fer- 
tilized at  the  rate  of  about  6  tons  of  rotted  horse  manure 
and  320  pounds  nitrate  of  soda  in  spring  yielded  the  fol- 


200        FOE  AGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 

lowing  year  at  the  rate  of  5666  pounds  to  the  acre  against 
2166  for  a  check  plot. 

At  the  Central  Experimental  Farm,  Ottawa,  Canada, 
400  pounds  superphosphate  to  the  acre  gave  a  greatly  in- 
creased yield. 

219.  Treatment  of  meadows.  —  In  the  Dakotas  and 
adjacent  Canada,  brome-grass  fields  as  a  rule  yield  the 
first  season  nothing  but  a  small  amount  of  pasturage; 
the  second  year,  a  good  crop  of  hay;  the  third  year,  a 
maximum  crop ;  the  fourth  year,  a  decidedly  diminished 
yield;  and  thereafter,  but  little  unless  special  treatment 
is  given. 

In  the  Columbia  Basin  a  good  amount  of  pasture  is 
secured  the  first  year,  the  second  year  the  grass  yields 
but  moderately  if  cut  for  hay,  but  bears  a  heavy  crop  of 
seed.  The  third  year  the  hay  crop  is  at  a  maximum. 

Brome-grass,  after  the  third  or  fourth  year,  falls  off 
in  yield  rapidly  on  account  of  what  is  called  a  "  sod- 
bound  "  condition,  apparently  due  in  part  to  the  spread- 
ing of  the  grass,  and  in  part  to  the  increasing  compactness 
of  the  soil.  Loosening  the  soil  thoroughly  will  renew  the 
vigor  of  the  grass.  On  loose  or  sandy  soil  harrowing  with 
disk  or  spike-tooth  harrow  is  fairly  effective.  On  heavier 
soils  plowing  is  necessary,  the  time  depending  largely  on 
the  soil  moisture  conditions.  But  little  of  the  grass  is 
killed  by  plowing.  Several  methods  have  been  used  :  — • 

1.  Plowing  about  2  inches  deep  in  spring,  a  method 
advocated  by  the  Saskatchewan  Experiment  Farm. 

2.  Plowing  after  the  hay  crop  is  harvested,  advocated 
by  the  Brandon,  Manitoba,  Experiment  Farm. 

3.  Plowing  in  spring  and  seeding  to  oats  or  other  grain, 
to  which  some  brome  seed  may  be  added.     In  this  way  a 
crop  of  grain  is  secured  and  a  full  grass  crop  the  next  year. 


ORCHARD-GRASS,   OAT-GRASS,   ^ROME-GRASSES    201 

4.  Breaking  the  sod  in  fall,  and  sowing  oats  or  other 
small  grain  in  spring.  The  next  season  a  full  crop  of 
grass  is  obtained. 

220.  Seed-production.  —  The    seed    of   brome-grass   is 
mainly  grown  in  North  and  South  Dakota,  and  in  Mani- 
toba and  Saskatchewan.     It  is  cut  at  the  stage  called 
"  brown  "  when  the  seed  is  fully  formed  and  nearly  ripe. 
It  is  usually  harvested  with  a  binder,  more  rarely  with 
a    header    and    occasionally   with    a    mowing   machine. 
When  a  binder  is  used,  the  grass  is  cut  as  high  as  possible 
and  the  bundles  then  shocked  for  curing.     The  tall  stubble 
is  then  cut  for  hay  and  yields  about  one  ton  per  acre. 
Harvesting  the  seed  with  a  header  leaves  a  larger  amount 
of  the  grass  for  hay. 

The  seed  is  thrashed  with  an  ordinary  thrashing  machine, 
using  special  riddles,  and  with  the  wind  shut  off  to  prevent 
the  seed  from  blowing  over.  The  seed  usually  contains 
fragments  of  straw  which  cannot  all  be  separated  even 
with  a  fanning  mill. 

Seed  yields  average  from  about  250  to  350  pounds  to  the 
acre.  At  the  Saskatchewan  Experimental  Farm  as  high 
as  600  pounds  to  the  acre  were  secured.  At  the  Iowa  Ex- 
periment Station  300  pounds  were  obtained.  At  North 
Platte,  Nebraska,  three  plots  yielded  respectively  157, 
200  and  700  pounds  to  the  acre,  the  first  plot  being  on  land 
previously  in  alfalfa. 

221.  Seed.  —  Although    brome-grass    seed    is    easily 
distinguished,  it  is  sometimes  adulterated  with  meadow 
fescue,    perennial   rye-grass   and   cheat.     European   seed 
sometimes  contains  quack-grass  as  an  impurity,  and  the 
seeds  of  this  are  very  similar  to  western    wheat-grass, 
which  may  occur  in  American  seed. 

The  best  commercial  brome-grass  seed  attains  a  purity 


202         FOE  AGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR    CULTURE 

of  98-99  per  cent,   and  a  viability  of  90-95  per  cent. 
Germination  tests  should  continue  14  days. 

The  seed  weighs  12  to  20  pounds  to  the  bushel.  One 
pound  contains  137,000  seeds,  according  to  Stebler. 

222.  Pasture  value.  —  Brome-grass  is  better  adapted 
for  pasture  purposes  than  for  hay.     Under  semi-arid  con- 
ditions in  the  Northwest,  brome-grass  is  without  question 
the  best  pasture  grass  for  cultivated  lands  yet  discovered. 
Its  ability  to  withstand  drought  is  as  great  as  that  of 
alfalfa.     Other    characters    that    emphasize    its    pasture 
value,  especially  on  sandy  lands,  are  its  sod  producing 
habit,  which  enables  it  to  withstand  trampling  and  pre- 
vents uprooting. 

Comparative  tests  have  shown  that  it  is  one  of  the  most 
palatable  of  all  grasses,  cattle  grazing  upon  it  in  preference 
even  to  blue-grass.  It  begins  to  grow  very  early  in  the 
spring  and  continues  growth  into  late  fall.  After  frost 
the  leaves  become  purplish,  but  the  grass  does  not  seem  to 
lose  in  palatability. 

At  the  North  Dakota  Experiment  Station  brome-grass 
cut  five  times  during  the  season  yielded  5538  pounds  of 
green  grass  against  4682  pounds  for  timothy. 

223.  Mixtures.  —  Several   mixtures   with   brome-grass 
have  been  employed  and  are   especially  satisfactory  in 
that  they  tend  to  delay  the  sod-bound  condition.    Timothy 
has  been  most  used  in  mixtures,  but  alfalfa,  red  clover, 
orchard-grass,  slender  wheat-grass    and   meadow   fescue 
have  also  been  found  desirable.     At  the  Indian  Head, 
Saskatchewan,  Experimental  Farm,  a  mixture  of  brome- 
grass  and  slender   wheat-grass    has   proven   particularly 
desirable. 

224.  Variability.  —  Brome-grass,  like  most  other  grasses, 
shows  a  wide  range  of  variability  in  desirable  character- 


ORCHARD-GRASS,    OAT-GRASS,   BROME-GRASSES     203 

istics.  Numerous  strains  have  been  selected  by  Leckenby, 
by  Evans  and  by  Dillman  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  by  Keyser  of  the  Colorado  Experiment 
Station  and  others.  As  yet  no  pure  strains  have  become 
established. 

The  progeny  of  some  individuals  is  quite  uniform; 
in  others,  very  diverse.  Keyser  has  selected  121  distinct 
strains,  and  has  recently  published  illustrations  and  notes 
on  the  most  striking.  The  individual  plants  vary  in 
vigor,  height,  number  of  culms,  amount  of  stooling, 
coarseness  of  stems,  color  of  leaves  and  panicles,  length  and 
breadth  of  leaves  and  earliness.  For  pasture  purposes 
the  most  desirable  type  is  apparently  one  that  stools 
vigorously  and  produces  an  abundance  of  leaves.  For 
hay  purposes,  one  that  is  relatively  bunchy  with  tall, 
leafy  culms  is  probably  best. 


CHAPTER  X 

OTHER   GRASSES   OF   SECONDARY    IMPOR- 
TANCE 

THE  grasses  discussed  in  this  chapter  are  all  important 
in  limited  areas  in  America.  Most  of  them  thrive  well 
over  wide  regions  in  which  they  are  little  or  not  at  all 
used.  With  the  increasing  value  and  importance  of  grass 
lands  in  general  agriculture,  their  greater  utilization  in  the 
future  scarcely  admits  of  doubt. 

MEADOW  FESCUE  (Festuca  elatior) 

225.  Botany  and  history.  —  Meadow  fescue  occurs 
naturally  over  all  of  Europe  and  in  much  of  temperate 
Asia.  The  species  is  not  very  variable,  but  eight  or  more 
varieties  based  on  slight  characters  have  been  described 
and  named  by  botanists.  From  a  botanical  point  of 
view  Festuca  pratensis  Hudson  is  considered  identical 
with  F.  elatior  Linnaeus,  but  seedsmen  use  these  names  as 
the  equivalents,  respectively,  of  two  cultural  varieties ; 
namely,  meadow  fescue  or  English  blue-grass,  and  tall 
fescue.  The  former  has  also  been  known  as  Randall 
grass  in  the  South,  but  this  name  has  sometimes  been 
applied  to  tall  oat-grass,  perhaps  erroneously. 

Meadow  fescue  was  first  recommended  for  cultivation 
by  Kalm  in  Sweden  in  1747. 

204 


OTHEE    GRASSES   OF  SECONDARY  IMPORTANCE     205 


226.  Characteristics.  —  Meadow    fescue    is    a    tufted, 
deep-rooted,  long-lived  perennial.     It  produces  an  abun- 
dance   of    dark    green    leaves    on    sterile    shoots,    and 
comparatively  few 

culms  or  fertile 
shoots.  The  ster- 
ile shoots  are 
about  4  times  as 
numerous  as  the 
fertile  ones.  The 
culms  are  not  very 
leafy,  and  grow 
commonly  to  a 
height  of  18  to  24 
inches  or  rarely 
3  feet.  Although 
the  grass  possesses 
no  rootstocks  it  is 
not  bunchy,  but 
makes  a  fairly 
good  sod.  If  cut 
either  for  hay  or 
for  seed,  it  pro- 
duces a  good 
amount  of  after- 
math. If  cut 
early,  the  second 

•  n  j  FIG.    21.  —  Meadow    fescue     (Festuca    elatior). 

crop  will  produce  a  spikelet. 

culms,  but  other- 
wise mostly  leaves.  It  withstands  pasturing  very  well. 

Old  fields  of  meadow  fescue  are  plowed  without  diffi- 
culty, and  the  grass  is  as  readily  destroyed  as  timothy. 

227.  Adaptations.  —  Meadow    fescue    is    adapted    to 


206        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

practically  the  same  area  as  timothy.  It  prefers  rich, 
moist  or  even  wet  soils,  but  does  not  succeed  well  in  sandy 
land.  In  shady  places  it  thrives  quite  as  well  as  orchard- 
grass.  It  is  better  adapted  for  pastures  than  for  meadows, 
but  may  be  used  for  both  purposes.  The  grass  was  early 
introduced  in  the  United  States  and  occurs  spontaneously 
over  the  whole  region  to  which  it  is  adapted,  but  it  seems 
never  to  be  abundant  under  natural  conditions.  The 
grass  is  probably  just  as  hardy  as  timothy  and  has  suc- 
ceeded as  far  north  as  Kenai,  Alaska. 

228.  Importance.  —  Meadow  fescue  is  a  grass  of  small 
importance  in  American  agriculture,   except  in  eastern 
Kansas,  where  much  seed  is  grown  principally  for  export 
to  Europe.     This  industry  began  in  1877  and  has  developed 
greatly  since  1885.     In  1903  the  yield  of  seed  was  estimated 
at  about  400,000  pounds.     Both  the  yield  and  the  prices 
fluctuate  greatly,  which  has  led  to  a  larger  utilization  of 
the  grass  crop  for  hay  and  pasture. 

In  Europe  the  grass  is  much  employed  both  in  meadow 
and  in  pasture  mixtures. 

229.  Seeding.  —  Meadow  fescue  should  be  sown  on  a 
well-prepared  and  thoroughly  firmed  seed  bed.     It  may 
be  seeded  either  in  fall  or  in  spring,  but  early  fall  is  the 
usual  time.     Nurse  crops  are  seldom  used,  as  if  fall  sown 
a  full  crop  ensues  the  first  year.     The  usual  rate  of  seeding 
is  10  to  15  pounds  to  the  acre  where  a  seed  crop  is  desired. 
Heavier  seedings  are  better  for  hay  or  for  pasture,  but 
probably  reduce  the  seed   crop.      Red   clover  is   some- 
times mixed  to  improve  the  subsequent  crop  of  hay  or 
pasture. 

In  Europe  the  rate  of  seeding  when  sown  alone  is  given 
at  40  pounds  per  acre  by  most  authorities,  but  the  grass 
is  usually  sown  in  mixtures. 


OTHER    GRASSES   OF  SECONDARY  IMPORTANCE      207 

230.  Hay.  —  Meadow  fescue  should  be  cut  for  hay 
just  as  it  comes  into  bloom,  if  the  best  quality  is  desired. 
The  hay  is  somewhat  stemmy  and  rather  laxative.  No 
American  feeding  experiments  are  reported,  but  the  hay 
is  as  palatable  as  timothy,  and  stockmen  consider  it  more 
fattening  for  cattle.  It  is  probably  too  laxative  to  use 
exclusively  as  horse  feed. 

In  favorable  moist  seasons  a  crop  of  hay  can  be  cut 
after  one  of  seed  is  harvested,  but  this  second  crop  is 
mainly  leaves  and  but  few  culms. 

Meadows  fertilized  with  barnyard  manure  remain 
productive  a  long  time,  in  some  instances  as  high  as  17 
years.  It  is  considered  better  practice,  however,  to  allow 
the  fields  to  lie  but  5  or  6  years. 

The  average  yield  of  hay  in  Kansas  is  given  at  1  to  1.5 
tons  to  the  acre,  but  on  fields  fertilized  with  barnyard 
manure,  these  yields  may  be  doubled. 

Acre  yields  have  been  reported  from  various  experiment 
stations  as  follows :  Ohio,  2100  pounds,  average  of  6 
years ;  Kansas,  2155  pounds,  average  of  4  years ;  Illinois, 
3775  pounds  ;  Michigan  (Upper  Peninsula) ,  6070  pounds ; 
Utah,  2200  pounds ;  Idaho,  5280  pounds ;  Arlington 
Farm,  Virginia,  3080  pounds;  Nebraska,  2400  to  3450 
pounds. 

At  the  Illinois  Experiment  Station  the  yield  of  dry 
substance  was  found  to  be  1424  pounds  to  the  acre  when 
in  full  bloom,  and  1954  pounds  when  the  blooming  was 
completed. 

European  authorities  give  the  yield  of  hay  as  ranging 
from  3500  pounds  to  10,000  pounds  to  the  acre. 

231.  Seed-production.  —  Meadow  fescue  should  be  cut 
for  seed  as  soon  as  the  fields  assume  a  characteristic 
yellowish-brown  color  and  the  heads  begin  to  droop  from 


208        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR    CULTURE 

the  weight  of  grain.  This  is  early  in  July  in  Kansas.  The 
grass  is  commonly  cut  with  a  binder  and  cured  in  small 
shocks.  Thrashing  is  done  with  an  ordinary  grain 
thrasher,  but  preferably  using  a  special  screen. 

Where  a  seed  crop  is  the  object,  it  is  probably  best  not 
to  pasture  in  spring.  The  opinions,  as  well  as  the  practices, 
of  seed  growers,  however,  differ  on  this  point.  A  moderate 
amount  of  fall  pasturing  is  probably  not  injurious  to  the 
next  seed  crop. 

The  average  yield  of  seed  is  8  to  12  bushels,  and  maxi- 
mum yields  about  25  bushels  to  the  acre.  First-class  seed 
weighs  25  pounds  to  the  bushel. 

The  commonest  weeds  that  occur  with  meadow  fescue 
in  Kansas  are  flea  bane  (Erigeron  ramosus),  cheat 
(Bromus  secalinus)  and  Japanese  cheat  (Bromus  japoni- 
cus).  The  last  two  are  particularly  objectionable  because 
of  the  difficulty  of  separating  their  seeds  from  the  fescue 
seeds. 

Some  seed  is  grown  in  Europe.  Werner  states  that  the 
yields  in  Germany  range  from  350  to  700  pounds  to  the 
acre. 

232.  Seed.  —  Meadow  fescue  seed  often  contains  a 
small  percentage  of  cheat  as  an  impurity,  usually  less 
than  5  per  cent,  but  sometimes  much  more.  Perennial 
rye-grass  has  in  some  cases  been  used  as  an  adulterant, 
but  this  may  be  distinguished  by  the  joints  of  the  rachilla 
being  flattened,  slightly  wedge  shaped  and  not  expanded 
at  the  apex. 

The  best  commercial  seed  attains  a  purity  of  99  per 
cent  and  a  viability  of  95-98  per  cent.  It  loses  about 
5  per  cent  viability  the  first  year,  but  thereafter  falls  off 
more  rapidly,  three-year-old  seed  being  nearly  value- 
less. 


OTHER   GRASSES   OF  SECONDARY  IMPORTANCE     209 

The  weight  of  a  bushel  ranges  from  15  to  30  pounds. 
One  pound  contains  about  250,000  seeds. 

233.  Pasture  value.  —  Meadow  fescue  is  better  adapted 
for  pasturing  than  for  hay.     It  begins  its  growth  early 
in  the  spring,  and  continues  late  in  the  fall.     It  is  quite 
as  palatable  as  Kentucky  blue-grass,   and  stockmen  in 
Kansas  and  Nebraska  consider  it  especially  valuable  for 
fattening  cattle. 

Meadow  fescue  is  well  adapted  to  growing  in  mixture 
with  other  grasses,  especially  in  moist  lands.  It  should 
probably  be  included  in  such  mixtures  throughout  the 
timothy  region.  When  grown  alone,  it  endures  in  Kansas 
and  Nebraska  for  6  to  8  years,  or,  if  manured  and  well 
cared  for,  12  to  15  years.  In  mixtures  it  usually  maintains 
itself  for  about  five  years,  but  is  at  its  best  the  second  and 
third  years. 

234.  Pests.  —  The  only  serious  enemy  that  has  attacked 
meadow  fescue   in    America   is   a   rust    (Puccinia   lolii). 
This  fungus  greatly  injures  the  leaves  of  the  aftermath, 
practically   ruining   the   fall   pastures.     It   also   weakens 
the  plants  so  that  but  few  culms  are  produced  the  following 
season. 

Tall  fescue,  when  growing  adjacent  to  infected  meadow 
fescue,  remains  almost  wholly  free  from  the  fungus,  but 
is  not  entirely  immune. 

Strebel  states  that  in  Germany  meadow  fescue  from 
American  seed  is  far  more  subject  to  rust  than  that  from 
German  seed. 

235.  Hybrids.  —  Festuca  elatior  is  a  remarkable  grass 
because  of  its  ability  to  make  hybrids.     Natural  hybrids 
with   Festuca   arundinacea,   F.    gigantea,   Lolium   perenne 
and  L.  multiflorum  have  been  described.     None  of  these 
has  been  utilized  agriculturally. 


210        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 


OTHER    FESCUES 

236.  Tall  fescue.  —  Tall  fescue  differs  from  meadow 
fescue,  mainly  in  being  6  to  12  inches  taller,  in  its  some- 
what looser  panicles  and  in  its  resistance  to  rust.     The 
seeds  of  the  two  are  quite  indistinguishable,  but  those  of 
tall  fescue  command  a  much  higher  price.     From  limited 
experiments  in  Kansas   and  in  Washington,   tall  fescue 
appears  to  yield  only  half  as  much  seed  as  meadow  fescue. 
The  culms  are  comparatively  few  and  the  seeds  ripen 
unevenly.     Owing  to  its  rust  resistance,  it  may  replace 
meadow  fescue,  especially  as  it  yields  larger  crops  of  hay 
and  the  seed  commands  a  higher  price. 

At  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station  tall  fescue  produced 
in  four  years  on  one-twentieth  acre  plots  an  average  yield 
of  4870  pounds  of  hay  per  acre. 

237.  Reed  fescue  (Festuca  arundinacea) .  —  Reed  fescue 
is  native  to  Europe,  North  Africa  and  western  Siberia. 
It  is  more  variable  than  its  close  relative,  F.  elatior,  about 
twelve  varieties  being  botanically  distinguished  in  Europe. 

By  some  botanists  it  is  considered  a  variety  of  meadow 
fescue.  It  is,  however,  a  larger  and  coarser  plant  in  every 
way.  It  is  perhaps  most  easily  distinguished  from  tall 
fescue  by  the  upper  part  of  the  culm,  the  lower  sheaths 
and  upper  surface  of  the  stiffer  leaves  being  very  scabrous. 

The  seed  is  indistinguishable  from  tall  fescue  and  it  is 
sometimes  sold  for  that  by  unscrupulous  dealers. 

Reed  fescue  has  from  time  to  time  been  extravagantly 
praised,  but  has  nowhere  attained  any  definite  agricultural 
status. 

It  produces  large  yields  of  hay,  which  is  said  to  be  readily 
eaten  by  horses  and  cows.  Sheep,  however,  refuse  it, 
both  as  pasturage  and  as  hay.  So  far  as  growth  and  seed 


OTHER   GRASSES   OF  SECONDARY  IMPORTANCE      211 

production  are  concerned,  it  is  far  superior  to  both  meadow 
fescue  and  tall  fescue,  but  its  lack  of  palat  ability  has  kept 
it  from  being  much  used. 


PERENNIAL    OR    ENGLISH    RYE-GRASS    (Lolium 

238.  Name.  —  The     name     "  rye-grass  "     or     "  ray- 
grass,"  as  applied  to  species  of  Lolium,  did  not  originate 
from    any   fancied   resemblance    to    rye.     The   name   is 
probably  derived  from  the  French  appellation  for  darnel 
(Lolium  temulentum),  "fausse  ivraye  "  or  "ivrai."     From 
this  the  English  designation  was  easily  derived  by  abridg- 
ment into  ray  or  rai  =  rye.     In  distinction  to  Italian 
rye-grass,  it  is  known  either  as  perennial  or  English  rye- 
grass. 

239.  Agricultural    history.  —  Perennial    rye-grass    was 
the  first  of  all  perennial  grasses  to  be  grown  in  pure  cul- 
tures for  forage.   According  to  Sutton  it  was  first  mentioned 
in   agricultural   literature   in   England  in  1611.     Werner 
states  that  it  was  first  cultivated  by  Eustace,  who  lived 
in  Oxford  about  1681. 

Sinclair  refers  to  a  mention  of  its  cultivation  in  Wor- 
lidge's  "  Husbandry,"  published  in  1669,  but  it  is  not  clear 
that  Worlidge  really  referred  to  perennial  rye-grass. 

240.  Botany.  —  Perennial    rye-grass    occurs    naturally 
in  all  of  temperate  Asia  and  in  North  Africa.     Botanists 
have  distinguished  and  named  about  10  varieties.    Hybrids 
are   known   with   Festuca   elatior,    Festuca   gigantea   and 
Lolium  muUiflorum. 

241.  Characteristics.  —  This  rye-grass  is  a  short-lived, 
rapid-growing  perennial,  living  only  two  years  on  poor 
lands,  but  persisting  much  longer  under  favorable  con- 
ditions, especially  in  lawns  and  pastures.      If  grown  in 
hay  mixtures,  it  is  apt  to  disappear  after  the  first  year,  as 


212        FOE  AGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

it  does  not  withstand  shading  by  taller  grasses.  It 
closely  resembles  Italian  rye-grass,  but  can  nearly  always 
be  distinguished  by  the  awnless  lemmas.  The  young 
leaves  are  folded  and  not  convolute,  as  in  Italian  rye- 
grass. 

242.  Adaptations.  —  This   grass   is   primarily   adapted 
to  moist  regions  with  mild  winter  climate.     It  continues 
to  grow  at  low  temperatures  and  partly  on  this  account 
does  not  well  withstand  severe  winter  cold.     In  winter 
hardiness  it  is  about  equal  to  orchard-grass.     It  thrives 
best  on  rich,  moist,  well-drained  soils,  and  does  not  do  well 
on  sandy  soils,  nor  will  it  endure  standing  water  near  the 
surface. 

243.  Importance.  —  In    America,    perennial    rye-grass 
is  of  small  importance,  being  seldom  employed  except  as 
an  admixture  in  lawn  grasses.     It  succeeds  well  enough 
wherever  red  clover  thrives,  but  has  not  won  for  itself 
a  place  in  American  agriculture. 

In  Europe  it  is  the  principal  pasture  grass,  being  much 
employed  on  rich  bottom  or  moor  lands,  usually  in  mixture 
with  white  clover,  but  it  is  also  used  as  an  element  in 
practically  all  pasture  land  mixtures.  In  Europe  it  holds 
much  the  position  which  Kentucky  blue-grass  does  in 
America.  As  a  hay  grass  it  is  much  inferior  in  yield  to 
Italian  rye  and  other  grasses.  It  is  also  much  cultivated 
in  New  Zealand. 

244.  Agricultural  varieties.  —  Besides  being  the  oldest 
cultivated   meadow-grass,   perennial    rye-grass    was    also 
the    first    in   which    cultural    varieties    were    developed. 
Apparently  this   grass  is  little   subject  to  cross-pollina- 
tion  and   hence  varieties  are  not  difficult  to  maintain. 
Sinclair  in  1825  mentions  six  different   named   varieties 
in  England,  and  intimates  that  others  were  known  to  him. 


OTHER   GRASSES   OF  SECONDARY  IMPORTANCE      213 

At  the  present  time  English  seedsmen  advertise  several 
varieties  of  this  grass,  but  in  some  instances  these 
"  varieties  "  are  merely  seeds  of  different  weights  or  sizes 
separated  by  machinery. 

245.  Culture.  —  Perennial     rye-grass     may    be    sown 
either  in  the  fall  or  in  the  spring,  the  former  being  pref- 
erable, as  but  little  return  can  be  obtained  the  first  season 
if  spring  sown.     The  young  plants  grow  more  rapidly 
than  most  perennial  grasses,  so  that  some  winter  and  early 
spring  pasturage  is  afforded,  in  regions  of  mild  winters. 
If  used  for  pasturage  the  European  practice  is  to  pasture 
heavily  enough  to  keep  the  culms  from  developing,  as 
animals  will  not  eat  these.     If  grown  for  hay,  one  good 
cutting  and  a  second  smaller  one  may  be  secured.     In 
common  with  most  grasses,  it  should  be  cut  when  in  full 
bloom. 

In  pure  cultures  perennial  rye-grass  lasts  three  or  four 
years  when  cut  as  hay,  and  somewhat  longer  if  kept 
closely  pastured.  In  mixed  hay  meadows  it  soon  dis- 
appears. 

When  sown  alone,  25  to  35  pounds  to  the  acre  is  used. 

246.  Hay  yields.  —  The  hay  yield   of   perennial   rye- 
grass  is  not  as  large  as  most  hay  grasses.     In  Europe 
Werner  gives  the  average  yield  to  the  acre  as  3800  pounds, 
but  as  high  as  7400  pounds  has  been  recorded.     Karmrodt 
in  four  successive  years  on  the  same  plot  secured  yields 
to  the  hectare  of  6791,  10,432,  9407  and  6653  kilograms, 
the  yield  being  decidedly  best  in  the  second  and  third 
years. 

American  experiment  station  yields  to  the  acre  in  pounds 
are  reported  as  follows  :  North  Carolina,  5229  ;  Kentucky, 
4640 ;  Ohio,  1822,  6-year  average ;  Kansas,  1050,  2-year 
average ;  Arlington  Farm,  Virginia,  2800 ;  Utah,  1410 


214 


FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 


and  1560  ;    Idaho,  4000  ;    Ontario  (Guelph),  2500,  7-year 

average. 

247.    Seed-production.  —  The  seed  habits  of  the  grass 

are  excellent    and  under  very  favorable  conditions  two 

crops  may  be  harvested  in  the  same  season.     More  usually 

the  first  is  cut  for 
hay  and  the  second 
for  seed.  The  grass 
should  be  cut  before 
the  seed  is  fully  ripe ; 
otherwise,  there  is 
some  loss  by  shatter- 
ing. Practically  no 
seed  is  grown  in 
America,  the  com- 
mercial supplies  com- 
ing from  Europe  and 
New  Zealand. 

248.  Seed.— Seed 
of  perennial  rye-grass 
is  grown  mainly  in 
Scotland  and  Ire- 
land. None  is  grown 
in  America.  On  ac- 
count of  shattering, 
the  crop  is  cut  before 
the  seeds  are  fully 
ripe.  Care  is  neces- 
sary in  curing,  as, 
if  the  hay  becomes 

heated  in  drying,  the  germination  of  the  seed  is  injured. 

The  yield  per  acre  varies  from  250    to   500  pounds   per 

acre  and  maximums  of  1050  pounds  are  reported. 


FIG.  22.  —  Italian  rye-grass  (Lolium  mul- 
tiflorum) .  a,  spikelet ;  b,  c,  lemma ;  d,  e, 
seed. 


OTHER   GRASSES   OF  SECONDARY  IMPORTANCE      215 

The  seed  is  recleaned  and  graded  according  to  weight 
and  size.  The  small  seeds  are  sold  as  short-seeded  rye- 
grass,  and  sometimes  as  Pacey's  rye-grass. 

ITALIAN   RYE-GRASS 

249.  Characteristics.  —  Italian  rye-grass  (Lolium  multi- 
florum)  is  readily  distinguished  from  perennial  rye-grass 
by  the  lemma  being  awned,  except  in  one  variety,  but  in 
all  forms  the  young  leaves  are  convolute,  not  folded  as 
in  perennial  rye-grass.     Agriculturally  it  is  distinguished 
by  its  short  life,  —  seldom  over  two  years,  unless  heavily 
manured,  —  its  very  rapid  growth  and  prompt  recovery 
after  cutting. 

250.  Botany.  —  Italian  rye-grass  is  native  in  the  region 
about    the    Mediterranean;     namely,    southern    Europe, 
northern  Africa  and  Asia  Minor.     Varieties  have  been 
distinguished  by  the  awns ;    namely,  longiaristatum,  the 
ordinary   long-awiied   form;     submuticum,   with   the   oc- 
casional awns  short ;  and  muticum,  which  is  awnless. 

On  the  length  of  life  are  differentiated  Gaudini,  the 
annual  forms,  and  perennans,  which  lives  3-4  years. 
Stebler  and  Volkart  state  that  the  former  includes  a 
summer  annual  form,  to  which  belongs  Argentine  rye- 
grass  ;  a  winter  annual  form,  which  includes  RieffeFs 
rye-grass,  cultivated  in  Brittany ;  and  Bailly's  rye-grass, 
which  differs  only  in  being  awnless.  The  forms  which 
endure  more  than  one  year  are  Westernwolth  rye-grass, 
which  blooms  the  first  season  if  spring  sown,  and  ordinary 
Italian  rye-grass,  which  does  not  bloom  the  first  season. 

251.  Agricultural  history.  —  Italian  rye-grass  seems  to 
have   been   first   cultivated   in   northern   Italy.     It   was 
known  in  Switzerland  in   1820  and  in  France  in  1818. 
It  was  introduced  into  England  in  1831.     In  France  and 


216        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

England  especially,  it  is  largely  cultivated  and  furnishes 
the  largest  proportion  of  the  market  hay.  Elsewhere  in 
Europe  it  has  not  become  of  much  importance. 

252.  Adaptations.  —  This  rye-grass  is  primarily  adapted 
to    moist    regions    with    mild    winter    temperatures.     It 
succeeds  well  in  most  of  western  and  southern  Europe, 
Argentina   and   New   Zealand.      In   North   America  the 
best  results  have  been  secured  in  the  Atlantic  States, 
practically  in  the  same  area  as  that  adapted  to  crimson 
clover,  and  on  the  Pacific  Coast.     When  seeded  in  fall  it 
is  not  injured  by  a  temperature  of  —  10°  Fahrenheit  and 
probably  will  withstand  more  severe  cold. 

It  prefers  loam  or  sandy  loam  soils,  but  does  fairly  well 
on  clay  loams.  It  does  not  endure  standing  water,  but 
on  well-drained  land  is  well  adapted  to  irrigation 
farming. 

253.  Culture.  —  Italian  rye-grass  is  mostly  sown  alone 
at  the  rate  of  35-40  pounds  to  the  acre.     It  may  be  sown 
either  in  fall  or  in  spring,  with  or  without  a  nurse  crop. 
In  the  south  Atlantic  States  and'  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  fall 
seeding  gives  the  most  satisfactory  results.     The  grass  is 
not  well  adapted  to  sowing  in  permanent  meadows,  as  it 
disappears  after  the  second  year,   and  sometimes  after 
the  first.     Furthermore,  the  rye-grass  by  its  rapid  early 
growth  injures  the  other  grasses  so  that  in  some  experi- 
ments it  has  actually  reduced  the  yield. 

In  Europe  it  is  sometimes  mixed  with  crimson  clover, 
which  requires  much  the  same  conditions,  and  the  two 
are  ready  to  cut  for  hay  at  the  same  time.  A  test  of  this 
mixture  at  the  Delaware  Experiment  Station  gave  a  good 
yield,  and  enough  of  the  seed  of  the  Italian  rye-grass 
shattered  to  produce  a  volunteer  crop. 

254.  Irrigation.  —  Italian  rye-grass  succeeds  well  under 


OTHER   GRASSES  OF  SECONDARY  IMPORTANCE     217 


irrigation,    and   this   method   of    culture  has   long  been 
pursued   in   northern  Italy. 

At  the  Utah  Experiment  Station  the  following  results 
were  secured  with  irrigation  :  — 


Irrigation  water  applied,  inches 

7.50 

15.00 

45.00 

102.00 

Total  yield  of  Italian  rye-grass, 

pounds       

2357 

2218 

3201 

2357 

Yield  to  the  inch  of  irrigation 

water                          .... 

314 

148 

71 

2 

255.  Hay  yields.  —  Italian  rye-grass  is  remarkable 
for  the  number  of  cuttings  that  can  be  made  in  a  season 
and  the  large  total  yield  under  the  most  favorable  con- 
ditions. No  other  temperate  grass  grows  so  rapidly  or 
recovers  so  promptly  after  cutting.  Ordinarily  but  two 
cuttings  can  be  obtained  in  a  season,  the  second  smaller 
than  the  first.  With  abundant  moisture  and  fertilizer, 
however,  the  grass  has  yielded  5  cuttings  at  Christiana, 
Norway;  5  or  6  in  Germany;  and  as  many  as  7  to  9  in 
England  and  Switzerland,  in  a  single  season.  It  is  possible 
that  these  results  might  be  duplicated  west  of  the  Cascade 
Mountains  in  Oregon,  Washington  and  British  Columbia ; 
but  in  the  East,  Italian  rye-grass  languishes  under  mid- 
summer heat.  Warner  thinks  that  the  very  rapid  growth 
of  Italian  rye-grass  when  irrigated  with  liquid  manure  is 
partly  due  to  the  fact  that  it  produces  numerous  fine  roots 
from  the  lower  nodes.  The  growth  is  so  rapid  that  a  growth 
of  30  inches  has  been  recorded  in  three  weeks. 

Some  of  the  yields  recorded  for  Italian  rye-grass  in 
Europe  border  on  the  marvelous.  In  England  on  land 
watered  with  liquid  manure,  annual  yields  of  60  to  120 
tons  of  grass,  or  12  to  20  tons  of  hay,  to  the  acre  are  said 


218        FOP  AGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

to  have  been  secured.  Werner  records  yields  of  52,040 
pounds  of  grass,  or  10,560  pounds  of  hay  to  the  acre  near 
Milan,  Italy,  in  6  cuttings  during  a  season.  Karmrodt 
in  four  successive  years  secured  on  the  same  piece  of  ground 
hay  yields  respectively  of  8077,  8100,  7058  and  7196 
pounds  to  the  acre. 

Yields  reported  by  American  experiment  stations  are 
very  moderate,  being  in  pounds  to  the  acre :  Kentucky, 
4480;  Missouri,  6800;  Ohio,  5120,  6-year  average; 
Kansas,  2341,  2-year  average;  Virginia  (Arlington  Farm), 
3200 ;  North  Carolina,  5557  and  5500.  At  the  Western 
Washington  Experiment  Station  3  cuttings  were  secured 
in  one  season.  The  Westernwolth  variety  gave  a  yield  of 
3432  pounds  an  acre  in  Prince  Edward  Island. 

256.  Seed-production.  —  The  seeding  habits  of  Italian 
rye-grass  are  essentially  the  same  as  those  of  perennial  rye- 
grass,  and  the  seed  is  just  as  easily  harvested.     It  shat- 
ters, however,  somewhat  more  readily  and  so  needs  to  be 
cut  promptly  when  the  seeds  are  in  the  late  dough  stage. 
Commercial  seed  is  grown  in  Europe,  Argentina  and  New 
Zealand.     The  average  yield  in  Europe  is  given  at  about 
500  pounds  an  acre,  the  maximum  at  double  the  quantity. 

Seed  from  various  sources  gave  very  much  the  same 
hay  yields  according  to  experiments  in  Switzerland. 

257.  Seed.  —  The  seed  of  Italian  rye-grass  is  usually 
quite  free  from  weed  seeds,  and  of  good  viability.     At  the 
Zurich,  Switzerland,  Seed  Control  Station,  the  average 
purity  of  7000  samples  has  been  95.4  per  cent  and  the 
average  germination  82  per  cent.     Very  good  seed  will 
reach  98  per  cent  purity  and  95  per  cent  germination. 
Two-year-old  seed  loses  about  25  per  cent  in  viability, 
and  three-year-old  seed  is  nearly  worthless.     Owing  to  the 
cheapness  of  the  seed  it  is  rarely  adulterated. 


OTHER   GRASSES   OF  SECONDARY  IMPORTANCE      219 

Ordinarily  it  is  easily  told  from  perennial  rye-grass  by 
the  awns.  If  these  are  absent,  the  two  may  be  distinguished 
by  the  palea,  this  being  far  more  abundantly  toothed  on 
the  margin  and  more  deeply  notched  in  Italian  rye-grass. 

The  seed  weighs  12  to  24  pounds  to  the  bushel,  and  the 
quality  varies  accordingly.  One  pound  contains  270,000 
to  285,000  seeds. 

SLENDER  WHEAT-GRASS  (Agropyron  tenerum) 

258.  Slender  wheat-grass,  known  in  Canada  as  western 
rye-grass  or  Mclvor's  rye-grass,  is  the  only  example  of 
a  native  North  American  grass  that  has  proven  valuable 
under  cultivation.  It  is  widespread,  but  variable,  occur- 
ring abundantly  from  British  Columbia  to  Manitoba, 
southward  to  Arizona  and  Oklahoma  and  sparingly 
eastward  to  Pennsylvania  and  Newfoundland.  It  is 
strictly  a  bunch  grass  with  numerous  slender  erect  stems, 
2  to  4  feet  high  and  narrow,  flat,  rather  stiff  leaves. 
The  spikelets  are  crowded,  scattered  in  a  spike  4  to  6 
inches  long.  Its  root  system  was  found  at  the  North 
Dakota  Experiment  Station  to  be  quite  as  deep  as  that  of 
brome-grass,  but  with  fewer  roots. 

Slender  wheat-grass  was  first  brought  into  cultivation 
about  1895.  It  is  now  grown  to  a  considerable  extent  in 
Manitoba,  Alberta,  Saskatchewan  and  the  Dakotas,  and 
has  given  good  results  in  Ontario  and  Washington. 

Slender  wheat-grass  is  usually  seeded  in  spring.  A  firm, 
well-prepared  seed  bed  is  desirable.  The  seed  may  be 
sown  broadcast  and  then  harrowed,  but  is  better  sown 
with  a  drill.  Good  stands  have  been  secured  with  10  to 
15  pounds  per  acre  in  Saskatchewan,  the  heavier  seeding 
being  best.  Elsewhere  as  high  as  30  pounds  an  acre  have 
been  used  without  the  stand  being  too  thick. 


220        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 


The  grass  is   somewhat   subject  to   a  rust    (Puccinia 
rubigo-vera),  but  otherwise  is  free  from  diseases. 

At  Indian  Head  (Saskatchewan)  Experimental  Farm, 

yields  of  hay  in  large 
plots  have  been  re- 
ported since  1901. 
The  yields  have  va- 
ried from  2000  to 
9000  pounds  an  acre, 
the  average  of  14 
fields  during  9  years 
being  4800  pounds. 
The  best  yields  were 
nearly  always  secured 
the  second  season 
after  seeding,  unless 
the  field  was  reno- 
vated by  manuring. 

At  Brandon,  Man- 
itoba, the  average 
yields  for  7  years  have 
been  4694  pounds  an 
acre. 

A  plot  of  one-fourth 
acre  at  the  South 
Dakota  Experiment 
Station  was  not  cut 
during  the  first  two 
years.  The  hay 
yields  during  the 
three  following  years  were  respectively  980,  908  and  1920 
pounds  an  acre. 

At  Guelph,  Ontario,  it  has  yielded  the  most  heavily 


FIG.  23.  —  Slender  wheat-grass  (Agropy- 
ron  teherum).  a,  glumes;  b,  spikelet  with 
glumes  removed. 


OTHER    GRASSES    OF  SECONDARY  IMPORTANCE      221 

of  15  grasses  during  trials  of  7  years,  the  average  yield 
for  the  period  being  on  small  plots  at  the  rate  of  8720 pounds 
an  acre.  In  other  trials  where  the  plots  were  cut  6  times 
each  season  during  4  years,  slender  wheat-grass  was  ex- 
ceeded only  by  tall  oat-grass  and  orchard-grass. 

Acre  yields  have  been  reported  from  other  experiment 
stations  as  follows :  Minnesota,  4700  pounds ;  Michigan 
(Upper  Peninsula),  5440  pounds;  North  Dakota  (Dick- 
inson), 2950  pounds,  2-year  average;  Wyoming,  2065 
pounds ;  South  Dakota  "  nearly  as  large  yields  as  brome- 
grass." 

Slender  wheat-grass  has  also  given  good  results  in 
mixtures,  especially  with  brome-grass ;  with  red  clover ; 
with  red  clover  and  timothy ;  and  with  alfalfa. 

At  Brandon,  Manitoba,  in  a  feeding  experiment  com- 
paring slender  wheat-grass  with  brome-grass,  4  steers 
fed  brome-grass  gained  675  pounds  and  4  fed  slender 
wheat-grass  gained  660  pounds.  At  Indian  Head,  Sas- 
katchewan, in  a  similar  trial  5  steers  gained  910  pounds 
on  brome  and  5  others  830  pounds  on  slender  wheat  dur- 
ing the  same  period. 

WESTERN  WHEAT-GRASS  (Agropyron  occidentals) 

259.  Western  wheat-grass  is  also  known  as  blue-stem, 
blue-joint  and  Colorado  blue-stem  in  various  parts  of  the 
West.  It  is  native  over  practically  the  whole  region  west 
of  the  98th  meridian  from  Saskatchewan  to  Mexico.  In  a 
general  way  it  resembles  slender  wheat-grass,  but  the 
whole  herbage  is  glaucous  and  the  grass  spreads  by  numer- 
ous creeping  root-stocks. 

Western  wheat-grass  is  quite  resistant  both  to  drought 
and  to  alkali,  but  it  is  seldom  abundant  except  where 
the  ground  is  naturally  or  artificially  irrigated.  Under 


222         FORAGE  PLANTS   AND    THEIR   CULTURE 

such  conditions  excellent  crops  of  hay  are  cut  and  where 
the  grass  is  well  known  it  has  long  borne  a  reputation  for 
horse  feed  equal  to  that  of  timothy.  In  Texas  the  bottoms 
of  shallow  desiccated  ponds  are  often  covered  with  a  pure 
growth  of  this  grass.  In  parts  of  Montana  it  is  only 
necessary  to  irrigate  the  land  in  order  to  secure  a  good 
stand  of  western  wheat-grass.  After  several  mowings 
the  grass  seems  to  become  sod  bound,  so  that  rejuvenation 
by  disking  is  necessary. 

Attempts  to  domesticate  this  grass  have  thus  far  not 
resulted  satisfactorily,  mainly  because  the  seed  is  poor  in 
quality  even  when  gathered  with  the  utmost  care.  While 
this  grass  possesses  creeping  rootstocks,  it  has  never  been 
reported  troublesome  as  a  weed.  Its  excellent  qualities 
make  it  worthy  of  further  efforts  at  domestication. 


CHAPTER  XI 

PERENNIAL   GRASSES   OF   MINOR    IMPOR- 
TANCE 

IT  has  already  been  pointed  out  that  a  number  of 
grasses  agriculturally  utilized  in  Europe  are  scarcely  at  all 
used  in  America.  From  the  fact  that  commercial  seed  is 
abundant,  and  from  their  European  reputations,  their 
exact  status  as  regards  America  is  important  to  the 
student.  Some  of  them  are  not  at  all  well  adapted  to 
American  conditions,  while  others  are  useful  only  in  very 
restricted  areas,  or  on  peculiar  soils. 

SHEEP'S  FESCUE  AND  CLOSELY  RELATED  SPECIES 

260.  Sheep's  fescue  and  its  close  relatives  form  in  all 
probability  the  most  puzzling  group  of  forms  of  all  the 
grasses.  About  70  varieties  have  been  described  from 
Europe  alone,  and  these  are  variously  regarded  as  forms 
of  one  species  or  of  several.  All  are  densely  tufted  per- 
ennials with  numerous  fine,  stiff  leaves,  and  slender  erect 
culms  usually  12  to  18  inches  high,  but  under  very  favor- 
able conditions  taller.  The  following  four  varieties  are 
used  in  agriculture  :  — • 

Sheep's  fescue  (Festuca  ovina)  with  folded  leaves  not 
broader  than  thick,  .3  to  .6  millimeter  wide. 

Hard  fescue  (Festuca  ovina  duriuscula  or  Festuca 
duriuscula)  differing  from  the  preceding  mainly  in 

223 


224        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

having  the  leaves  broader  than  thick,  .7  to  1  millimeter 

wide. 

Various-leaved  fescue  (Festuca  ovina  heterophylla  or  F. 

heterophylla)  is  some- 
times considered  a  va- 
riety of  Festuca  rubra. 
Some  of  the  shoots  are 
extravaginal.  The 
radical  leaf  blades  are 
long,  soft  and  folded, 
while  the  culm  leaves 
are  flat  and  expanded, 
whence  its  name. 

Fine-leaved  fescue 
(Festuca  ovina  tenuifo- 
lia  or  F.  tenuifolia  of 
the  seedsmen ;  Festuca 
ovina  capillata)  has 
very  fine  leaves  and 
awnless  lemmas. 

The  forms  of  Festuca 
ovina  native  to  North 
America  are  much 
fewer  than  in  Europe. 
Typical  Festuca  ovina 
occurs  rather  sparingly 
as  a  native  in  the 


FIG.  24.  —  Sheep's  fescue  (Festuca  ovina) . 


*      ,¥t,^^  .  fc*  vj        t*        j.j.  c*;   \J  JL    V    \^         J.  ii         \J  H.  \J 

a,    glumes;    b,   spikelet  with   glumes   re-     -r>      i      T\/T         ±    •       r 

moved.  Rocky  Mountains  from 

Alberta  to  New  Mex- 
ico, in  the  Black  Hills  and  about  the  Great  Lakes.  Fes- 
tuca ovina  ingrata,  the  "Blue  bunchgrass  "  of  the  stock- 
men, is  an  important  range  plant  from  British  Columbia 
and  Alberta  to  Colorado  and  Utah,  especially  in  the  Co- 


PERENNIAL   GE ASSES   OF  MINOR   IMPORTANCE     225 

lumbia  Basin.  Farther  south  it  is  replaced  by  the  larger 
Arizona  fescue  (Festuca  ovina  arizonica)  which  extends 
into  Mexico.  The  few  other  native  American  forms  are 
of  no  economic  importance. 

261.  Importance  and  culture.  —  None  of  these  fescues 
has  as  yet  attained  any  considerable  importance  under 
cultivation  in  America.  Fine-leaved  fescue  is  used 
sparingly  in  lawn  grass  mixtures.  Various-leaved  fescue 
has  apparently  been  tested  only  in  grass  gardens.  Hard 
fescue  also  seems  to  have  been  grown  only  in  trial  grounds, 
as  most  of  the  commercial  seed  is  the  indistinguishable 
sheep's  fescue.  Sheep's  fescue  has  become  widely  in- 
troduced, and  on  poor  stony  or  sandy  land  is  a  valuable 
pasture  plant  for  sheep  and  deserves  more-  attention  for 
such  purpose  than  it  has  yet  received  in  America. 

Sheep's  fescue  should  be  sown  only  for  pasturage  and 
only  on  land  that  will  not  produce  better  grasses,  such 
as  stony  or  gravelly  hills,  and  poor  sandy  soils.  It  is 
too  small  to  make  it  worth  while  to  sow  for  hay  on  good 
land,  even  in  mixture  with  other  grasses.  It  possesses 
abundant  deep,  strong  roots,  and  is  never  injured  by  up- 
rooting, nor  does  it  suffer  under  trampling  and  close 
grazing.  Sheep  eat  it  quite  readily,  but  cattle  avoid 
it  if  other  grasses  are  present.  The  animals  should  have 
access  to  the  pastures  early  in  the  spring,  as  the  grass  is 
more  palatable  if  kept  closely  grazed.  European  au- 
thorities state  that  the  grass  yields  most  during  the  second 
and  third  years,  and  should  be  plowed  under  after  four 
or  five  years,  where  possible. 

Sheep's  fescue  is  a  northern  grass,  and  not  well  adapted 
to  conditions  south  of  about  latitude  40  degrees,  except 
in  the  mountains.  Northward  its  limit  is  that  of  any 
possible  agriculture.  On  very  poor  land  it  will  thrive 


226        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR    CULTURE 

where  no  other  cultivated  grass  will  grow,  but  on  some- 
what better  pasture  land  should  be  grown  in  mixtures 
with  redtop,  Kentucky  blue-grass,  Canada  blue-grass  and 
white  clover.  In  pure  cultures,  European  writers  recom- 
mend sowing  28  pounds  an  acre. 

262.  Seed.  —  Seed   of   all   these   fescues   is   grown   in 
Europe.     That  of  sheep's  fescue  is  easily  gathered  and  is 
low  in  price. 

A  bushel  weighs  ordinarily  10  to  15  pounds,  but  the 
best  quality  reaches  30  pounds.  One  pound  contains 
680,000  seeds,  according  to  Stebler.  The  purity  should  be 
90  per  cent  and  the  viability  at  least  50  per  cent. 

RED    FESCUE 

263.  Red  fescue  (Festuca  rubra)  is  best  distinguished 
from  Festuca  ovina  by  having  creeping  extravaginal  shoots 
or  rootstocks.     Festuca  heterophylla  with  some  extravaginal 
non-creeping  shoots  is  intermediate  between  the  species. 
Red  fescue  occurs  naturally  in  Europe,  Asia  and  North 
America.     It  is  very  variable  and  numerous  varieties  have 
been  described.     In  North  America  it  ranges  from  Green- 
land southward  near  the  seacoast  to  Virginia,  and  from 
Alaska  to  California  and  New  Mexico.     One  form  occurs 
rarely  in  Tennessee  and  North  Carolina. 

It  has  never  been  used  under  cultivation  in  North 
America,  except  as  a  lawn  plant,  for  which  it  is  well 
adapted  in  the  Northern  States  and  Canada,  especially 
on  sandy  soil  near  the  seacoast.  In  some  of  its  forms  it  is 
probably  the  most  beautiful  of  all  lawn  grasses. 

Red  fescue  is  a  long-lived  perennial.  In  Europe  it  is 
somewhat  used  as  a  pasture  plant,  especially  on  moist, 
sandy  soils.  Under  favorable  conditions  it  makes  a  dense 
growth  and  may  reach  a  height  of  two  feet  or  more.  In 


PERENNIAL   GRASSES   OF  MINOR   IMPORTANCE      227 

such  dense  growths  the  lower  leaves  turn  brown  readily. 
Hay  yields  of  1|  and  2  tons  to  the  acre  are  recorded,  but 
this  is  exceptional.  It  should  not  be  planted  where  better 
hay  grasses  can  be  grown. 

At  present  the  commercial  seed  supply  of  red  fescue 
comes  from  Europe.  It  is  often  mixed  with  or  adulterated 
with  other  fescues,  where  seeds  can  scarcely  be  distin- 
guished. In  recent  years  a  variety  known  as  Chewing's 
fescue  has  been  exported  from  New  Zealand.  It  is  identical 
with  the  European,  at  least  for  all  practical  purposes. 
The  variety  sold  as  Festuca  dumetorum  is  apparently 
Festuca  rubra  grandiflora,  which  is  somewhat  larger  than 
the  typical  form. 

MEADOW  FOXTAIL  (Alopecurus  pratensis) 

264.  Meadow  foxtail  is  native  to  the  temperate  portions 
of  Europe  and  Asia.     It  is  quite  variable,  6  or  8  varieties 
having  been  botanically  named,  but  none  of  these  have 
come  into  agricultural  use. 

The  culture  of  meadow  foxtail  dates  from  about  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  when  it  was  recommended 
by  Kalm  in  Sweden  and  especially  by  Schreber  in  Germany. 

265.  Characteristics.  —  Meadow  foxtail  is  a  long-lived 
perennial  grass    producing  loose    tufts    with    numerous 
basal  leaves.     The  rootstocks  are  comparatively  few  and 
but  2  to  4  inches  long  as  a  rule.     The  culms  grow  usually 
to  a  height  of  3  feet,  but  rarely  reach  6  feet.     Under  very 
favorable  conditions  three  cuttings  may  be  secured  in  one 
season,  but  usually  only  two  cuttings. 

It  begins  its  growth  very  early  in  spring,  more  so  even 
than  sweet  vernal-grass.  The  grass  should  be  cut  for 
hay  when  in  full  bloom,  but  it  is  said  to  retain  its  feeding 
value  for  a  considerable  time  thereafter. 


228        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

266.  Adaptations.  —  Meadow  foxtail  is  adapted  primarily 
to  moist  cool  regions.     Its  culture  is  prominent  in  northern 
Europe,  but  elsewhere  it  is  but  little  grown.      It  has  no 
particular  soil  preference  so  long  as  the  water  supply  is 
abundant.     This  peculiarity  makes  it  well  suited  to  grow- 
ing under  irrigation,  but  it  will  not  withstand  drought. 
Though  primarily  adapted  to  open  meadows  it  endures 
shade  fairly  well.     Better  than  any  other  grass,  it  with- 
stands cold  weather  in  early  spring  after  its  growth  has 
begun,  and  it  is  perhaps  the  most  winter  hardy  of  any 
cultivated  perennial  grass. 

267.  Culture.  —  Meadow    foxtail    is    but    very  little* 
grown  in  North  America,  most  of  the  data  concerning  it 
being  those  obtained  at  experiment  stations. 

In  northern  Europe  it  is  a  favorite  hay  grass,  especially 
for  wet  meadows.  European  authorities  recommend  the 
sowing  at  the  rate  of  22  pounds  an  acre.  It  is  seldom 
sown  alone,  however,  but  usually  in  mixtures  with  such 
grasses  as  meadow  fescue,  timothy  and  orchard-grass. 
In  recent  years  its  improvement  by  breeding  has  been 
undertaken  at  Svalof,  Sweden. 

Sinclair  in  England  reports  a  yield  of  8844  pounds  an 
acre;  Vianne  in  France,. 8932  pounds. 

Few  yields  have  been  reported  by  American  experiment 
stations.  At  the  Michigan  (Upper  Peninsula)  Station  it 
gave  a  yield  of  2906  pounds  of  hay  to  the  acre ;  at  the 
Utah  Experiment  Station,  1500  pounds ;  and  the  7-year 
average  at  Guelph,  Ontario,  was  3100  pounds  an  acre. 

268.  Seed. —Seed  of  meadow  foxtail  is  grown  in  Finland, 
Sweden,  Denmark  and  Holland,  but  most  of  the  com- 
mercial supply  is  from  the  first-named  country.     A  small 
amount  is  also  exported  from  New  Zealand.     The  average 
yield  in  Europe  is  said  to  be  about  170  pounds  to  the  acre. 


PERENNIAL   GRASSES   OF  MINOR   IMPORTANCE     229 

The  results  of  tests  at  the  Zurich  Seed  Control  Station 
indicate  an  average  purity  of  75  per  cent  and  viability 
of  69  per  cent.  A  bushel  weighs  6  to  14  pounds.  One 
pound  contains  907,000  seeds  (Stebler) ;  490,000  (Hun- 
ter) ;  1,216,000  (Hunt). 

SWEET  VERNAL-GRASS  (Anthoxanthum  odoratum) 

269.  Botany.  —  Sweet  vernal-grass  is  native  to  tem- 
perate  Europe   and   Asia   and   Northwest  Africa.     It  is 
wholly   an  introduced  plant  in  North  America,   except 
perhaps  in  South  Greenland. 

Sweet  vernal-grass  receives  its  name  from  the  fact  that 
the  whole  plant  contains  cumarin,  giving  it  a  vanilla-like 
odor  but  also  a  bitter  taste.  This  is  present  even  in  the 
very  young  seedlings,  which  may  thus  be  recognized.  On 
account  of  its  agreeable  odor,  sweet  vernal-grass  has  long 
been  recommended  as  a  desirable  addition  in  mixed  grass 
meadows.  It  is  not  clear,  however,  that  the  grass  with 
its  pleasant  odor  really  makes  the  hay  more  palatable  to 
animals. 

The  grass  is  a  long-lived  perennial,  growing  in  small, 
dense  tufts,  the  culms  reaching  a  height  of  18  to  20  inches 
as  a  rule.  It  is  one  of  the  earliest  grasses  to  appear  in  spring, 
but  is  not  much  liked  by  cattle  as  a  pasture  grass.  It  is 
quite  resistant  to  both  cold  and  drought.  The  best  growth 
is  made  on  fertile  soil,  but  sweet  vernal-grass  will  thrive 
on  almost  any  type  of  soil  if  not  too  wet.  Near  Washing- 
ton, D.C.,  old  neglected  pastures  on  hard  clay  soils  are 
sometimes  covered  with  nearly  pure  growths  of  this  grass. 

270.  Culture.  —  Sweet     vernal-grass    has    never    been 
utilized  in  America  except  as  it  may  be  a  spontaneous 
element   in  pastures   and   meadows.     Its   small   growth, 
however,  does  not  commend  it.      In  Europe  it  is  used  in 


230         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

small  quantities  in  mixtures  with  other  grasses  because 
of  the  sweet  odor  it  imparts  to  hay.  It  is  never  sown  alone 
except  in  experimental  work.  Vianne  in  France  records 
hay  yields  of  1760  to  2640  pounds  an  acre,  but  this  must 
be  far  above  what  can  ordinarily  be  expected.  The  seed 
is  gathered  mainly  in  Germany.  At  the  Zurich  Seed 
Control  Station,  the  average  purity  of  numerous  samples 
was  found  to  be  about  92  per  cent  and  the  average  viability 
52  per  cent.  If  sown  pure,  about  20  pounds  of  such  seed 
are  needed  to  the  acre. 

REED  CANARY-GRASS  (Pholaris  arundinacea) 

271.  Botany  and  agricultural  history.  —  Reed   canary- 
grass  is  native  to  the  temperate  portions  of  Europe,  Asia 
and  .North  America.     It  grows  naturally  in  wet  soils, 
especially  river  bottoms  and  lake  shores,  where  it  is  subject 
to  periods  of  inundation.     No  botanical  varieties  have 
been  named  except  the   variegated   "  ribbon  grass  "   of 
the  gardens  (P.  arundinacea  picta).     The  grass  is,  how- 
ever, decidedly  variable,  about  ten  strains  having  been 
grown  for  several  years  at  Arlington  Farm,  Virginia.      The 
strains  differ  in  size,  coarseness,  earliness,  breadth  of  leaves 
and  other  characters,  but  all  shatter  their  seeds  readily. 

It  was  first  cultivated  in  England  before  1824  and  in 
Germany  about  1850.  It  has  never  been  much  used  in 
America,  but  is  cut  for  hay  where  it  occurs  naturally. 

272.  Characteristics.  —  Reed  canary-grass    is   a    long- 
lived,  rather  coarse  perennial  grass.     It  produces  numer- 
ous short  extravaginal  stolons,  which  at  the  tip  develop 
into  upright  culms.     Each  plant  finally  forms  a  rather 
dense  tussock,  one  to  two  feet  in  diameter.     The  culms 
are  perfectly  erect,  usually  about  four  to  six  feet  high  but 
often  taller,  and  so  stout  that  they  never  lodge. 


PERENNIAL   GRASSES   OF  MINOR   IMPORTANCE      231 

Reed-canary  is  adapted  mostly  to  cool  climates,  but 
the  ribbon  grass  form,  at  least,  succeeds  well  in  the  Southern 
States.  It  is  never  injured  by  severe  winter  weather. 
Though  naturally  a  wet  land  grass,  it  succeeds  well  in 
ordinary  cultivated  land,  especially  in  clays  and  clay 
loams.  It  also  succeeds  well  in  sand  if  there  be  an  ade- 
quate moisture  supply,  but  is  said  not  to  thrive  in  peaty 
soils.  Owing  to  its  moisture-loving  proclivities,  it  is 
well  adapted  to  irrigation. 

Growth  begins  early  in  spring  and  continues  late  into 
the  fall.  Seed  is  produced  in  abundance,  but  shatters 
easily.  This,  perhaps  more  than  anything  else,  has 
militated  against  its  general  use. 

273.  Culture.  —  Reed  canary-grass  is  sparingly  culti- 
vated in  Europe.  If  cut  before  bloom,  three  cuttings 
may  be  secured,  but  only  two  if  allowed  to  bloom.  At 
Arlington  Farm,  Virginia,  the  second  crop  of  plants  in 
rows  is  about  two-thirds  as  large  as  the  first.  The  hay  is 
palatable  if  cut  young,  and  yields  of  12,000  to  17,000 
pounds  an  acre  are  recorded  in  Europe.  These  yields, 
however,  are  based  on  very  small  plots. 

Seed  is  gathered  by  cutting  oft  the  panicles  before  they 
are  ripe,  and  the  yield  is  stated  to  be  about  180  pounds 
an  acre.  It  weighs  44  to  48  pounds  to  the  bushel. 

It  is  best  adapted  to  pure  cultures,  as  its  habits  do  not 
coincide  with  other  grasses.  Commercial  seed  germinates 
as  a  rule  but  60  per  cent,  and  20  to  25  pounds  to  the  acre 
should  be  sown. 

This  grass  would  be  worthy  of  serious  attention  if  its 
seeding  habits  could  be  improved.  It  is  possible  that 
a  strain  may  be  found  or  developed  which  will  not  seriously 
shatter  its  seed. 


232         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 

VELVET-GRASS  (Holcus  lanatus) 

274.  Velvet-grass  is  also  known  in  England  as  York- 
shire Fog,  and  meadow  soft-grass.  On  the  North  Pacific 
Coast,  where  it  is  extraordinarily  abundant,  it  has  acquired 
the  name  "  mesquite." 

It  is  native  to  temperate  Europe,  and  Asia,  and  extends 
southward  into  Algeria  and  the  Canary  Islands.  It  is 
adapted  primarily  to  moist,  cool  climates,  and  under  such 
conditions  is  not  particular  as  to  soil.  In  hardiness  it  is 
much  like  orchard-grass,  but  is  more  injured  by  late  spring 
frosts.  It  does  not  endure  shade. 

Velvet-grass  forms  thick,  rather  high  tussocks,  which 
make  mowing  somewhat  difficult.  The  culms  are  usually 
about  30  inches  high.  The  whole  plant  is  very  hairy  and 
probably  on  this  account  is  not  readily  eaten  by  animals 
either  as  hay  or  pasturage.  It  possesses  very  little  sub- 
stance, the  hay  being  probably  the  most  bulky  of  all 
grasses.  Under  favorable  climatic  conditions  two  cuttings 
of  hay  may  be  obtained.  European  authorities  state  that 
the  hay  yield  is  best  in  the  third  year.  Sinclair  in  Eng- 
land records  a  yield  of  6160  pounds  an  acre,  and  Vianne 
in  France,  6950  pounds. 

In  America  the  grass  is  utilized  to  a  slight  extent  in 
western  Virginia,  and  to  a  great  extent  on  the  North 
Pacific  Coast.  In  all  the  region  west  of  the  Cascade 
Mountains  —  in  Oregon,  Washington  and  British  Columbia 
—  it  is  very  aggressive,  and  in  the  very  moist  region  near 
the  ocean  occupies  the  land  practically  to  the  exclusion 
of  other  grasses.  Under  such  circumstances  its  use  is  a 
matter  of  necessity  rather  than  choice,  but  the  returns 
are  not  unsatisfactory.  The  grass  is  best  cut  when  in 
full  bloom,  at  which  time  the  rays  of  the  panicle  are 
spreading,  but  after  blooming  they  become  erect. 


PERENNIAL    GRASSES   OF  MINOR   IMPORTANCE      233 

Velvet-grass  should  perhaps  never  be  intentionally  sown, 
and  at  any  rate  merely  as  an  admixture  with  other  grasses. 

Commercial  seed  is  produced  mainly  in  Denmark,  and 
this  averages  about  63  per  cent  in  purity  and  84  per  cent 
in  germination.  New  Zealand  seed  is  somewhat  betterf 
The  yield  in  Germany  is  given  by  Werner  as  about  90 
pounds  to  the  acre,  and  as  the  price  is  very  low,  the 
financial  return  is  small.  European  writers  recommend 
20  pounds  of  seed  per  acre,  if  sown  pure. 

It  is  sometimes  desirable  to  eradicate  velvet-grass  so  as 
to  plant  the  land  to  more  valuable  grasses.  To  do  this 
the  grass  must  be  cut  before  the  seed  is  ripe,  generally 
June  10  to  20.  About  July  1  give  the  field  a  thorough 
but  shallow  disking.  Repeat  the  shallow  disking  every 
week  until  August  1,  and  then  treat  with  a  spring-tooth 
harrow  and  disk  again.  The  shallow  cultivation  during 
the  driest  weather  will  kill  the  roots  and  leave  the  ground 
with  a  very  fine  mulch  on  top  and  plenty  of  moisture  in 
the  subsoil.  The  land  may  then  be  reseeded  to  clover 
or  planted  to  any  other  crop  desired. 

ERECT  BROME  (Bromus  erectus) 

275.  Erect  brome,  upright  brome  or  meadow  brome  is 
a  perennial  species  that  has  long  been  cultivated  in  southern 
France  and  in  recent  years  in  other  countries.  The  grass 
is  native  to  much  of  temperate  Europe  and  Asia  and 
Algeria.  It  is  especially  adapted  to  dry  calcareous  soils 
that  are  too  shallow  for  sainfoin,  and  on  such  soils  is  said 
to  give  better  results  than  any  other  grass,  either  for 
pasture  or  for  hay.  It  bears  the  same  relation  to  poor, 
dry,  chalky  soils  that  sheep's  fescue  does  to  poor  sandy 
soils.  On  good  land  it  has  no  place,  as  other  grasses 
produce  larger  and  better  crops. 


234         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 

Both  the  hay  and  the  pasturage  are  of  mediocre  quality, 
but  the  fields  last  many  years  on  suitable  calcareous  soils. 
The  yield  is  best  the  second  year  and  the  plants  bloom 
but  once  each  season.  It  is  rarely  sown  alone,  but  usually 
mixed  with  sainfoin  if  the  land  is  good  enough. 

The  seed  weighs  about  15  pounds  to  the  bushel,  and 
50  pounds  to  the  acre  is  sown.  It  is  often  adulterated 
with  the  screenings  of  tall  oat-grass. 

Erect  brome  has  been  but  little  tried  in  America.  At 
the  Kansas  Experiment  Station  yields  of  1844  and  1720 
pounds  per  acre  were  obtained  in  1904  and  1905  respec- 
tively. At  the  Michigan  Upper  Peninsula  Substation  a 
small  plot  yielded  at  the  rate  of  3706  pounds  an  acre. 

YELLOW  OAT-GRASS  (Trisetum  flavesccns) 

276.  Yellow  oat-grass,  also  known  as  golden  oat-grass, 
is  native  over  much  of  temperate  Europe  and  Asia  and  in 
North  Africa,  and  several  botanical  varieties  are  described. 
It  is  of  only  secondary  importance  in  European  agriculture, 
but  is  practically  unknown  in  America.  It  is  a  loosely 
tufted,  long-lived  perennial.  It  is  used  almost  wholly  as 
an  admixture  with  other  grasses.  It  was  apparently  first 
brought  into  cultivation  in  England  before  1785.  The 
seed,  which  is  mainly  grown  in  the  south  of  France  and  in 
Tyrol,  is  scarce  and  expensive,  and  this  has  probably  pre- 
vented the  greater  use  of  the  grass. 

Yellow  oat-grass  is  decidedly  drought  resistant  and 
adapted  only  to  well-drained  soil.  It  is  said  to  prefer  cal- 
careous soils  rich  in  humus.  It  is  seldom  grown  in  pure 
cultures  except  for  purposes  of  seed-production.  Vianne  re- 
cords a  yield  of  5020  pounds  hay  an  acre  in  France,  and  Sin- 
clair in  England  records  that  he  obtained  2859  pounds  hay 
cut  in  bloom,  and  4900  pounds  cut  when  the  seed  was  ripe. 


PERENNIAL    GRASSES   OF  MINOR   IMPORTANCE      235 


The  aftermath  is  only  moderate.  When  sown  alone,  about 
30  pounds  of  ordinary  quality  of  seed  is  needed  to  the  acre. 
The  seed  weighs  5  to  14  pounds  a  bushel,  depending  on 
quality.  The  average 
purity  is  about  70  per 
cent  and  the  viability 
63  per  cent,  but  the 
best  heavy  seed  is 
guaranteed  by  some 
seedsmen  to  germinate 
70,  or  even  80  per  cent. 
One  pound  of  seed  con- 
tains 1,400,000  seeds 
according  to  Hunter, 
and  2,045,000  accord- 
ing to  Stebler.  Yellow 
oat-grass  is  sometimes 
used  for  lawns  and,  if 
kept  closely  cut,  makes 
a  good  fine  turf,  but 
rather  pale  in  color. 


CRESTED   DOGSTAIL 

(Cynosurus  cristatus) 


FIG.  25. — Crested  dogstail  (Cynosurus 
cristatus).  a,  b,  fertile  spikelets ;  c,  sterile 
spikelet. 


277.  Crested  dogs- 
tail  is  a  highly  appre- 
ciated grass  in  Europe 
as  an  admixture  both 
for  pastures  and  for  meadows.  It  makes  up  a  portion  of 
the  grass  upon  the  best  pastures  of  England,  Holland  and 
Switzerland.  It  is  considered  very  nutritious,  but  the 
yield  is  only  moderate.  It  is  adapted  primarily  to  cool, 
moist  regions. 


236        FOE  AGE   PLANTS  AND   TEEIE    CULTURE 

Crested  dogstail  is  another  example  of  a  European  grass 
that  fails  to  thrive  under  American  conditions,  probably 
on  account  of  summer  heat.  It  has  often  been  planted, 
but  has  become  only  very  sparingly  introduced  and  has 
nowhere  shown  any  ability  to  increase  and  spread. 

It  may  prove  of  some  value  on  the  North  Pacific  Coast- 
but  elsewhere  it  has  shown  no  promise. 


CHAPTER  XII 
SOUTHERN  GRASSES 

THE  climate  of  the  cotton  region  is  not  closely  paralleled 
by  that  of  any  portion  of  Europe,  and  European  grasses 
are  therefore  ill  adapted  to  the  conditions  in  the  South. 
Most  of  the  grasses  useful  in  the  Southern  States  have 
originated  in  countries  having  humid  subtropical  climates. 
Several  of  the  most  valuable  have  poor  seeding  habits,  but 
are  easily  propagated  vegetatively. 

BERMUDA-GRASS  (Cynodon  dactylon) 

278.  Botany.  —  Bermuda-grass  is  native  to  India  and 
perhaps  other  parts  of  the  Old  World  in  tropical  and  sub- 
tropical localities.     In  India  it  is  a  most  valued  pasture 
grass  and  called '  doob  or  hariali.     In  Virginia,  where  its 
growth  is  not  sufficient  to  make  it  valuable,  but  only 
troublesome,  it  is  generally  known  as  wire-grass.     It  is 
also   known   locally  as   dogs'-tooth  grass,  Bahama-grass 
and  Scotch-grass. 

Several  varieties  have  been  named  by  botanists,  some 
as  distinct  species.  The  interrelation  of  the  numerous 
forms  is  not,  however,  clear. 

279.  Characteristics.  —  Bermuda-grass  is  a  long-lived 
perennial  with  numerous  branched  leafy  stems    4    to   6 
inches  high,  or  under  very  favorable  conditions  12  to  18 

237 


288         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 


inches  high.     Where  the  aerial  stems  are  supported  by 
shrubs,  they  may  reach  a  height  of  3  feet.     The  leaves  are 

flat  and  spreading,  and 
differentiated  from  all 
similar  grasses  by  the 
ligule  which  consists  of 
a  circle  of  white  hairs. 
The  flowers  are  in  slen- 
der, spreading  spikes 
one-half  to  one  inch 
long,  arranged  in  um- 
bels of  4  to  6. 

In  the  ordinary  form 
of  Bermuda-grass, 
numerous  stout  root- 
stocks  as  large  as  a  lead 
pencil  are  produced, 
and  by  the  growth  of 
these  a  single  plant 
may  cover  an  area  of 
several  square  yards. 
In  very  hard  soil  the 
rootstocks  become 
stout  runners  1  to  3  feet 
long,  with  much  longer 
nodes  and  shorter 
leaves  than  the  aerial 

stems.     St.  Lucie-grass  and  other  forms  have  no  under- 
ground rootstocks,  but  are  much  less  hardy. 

280.  Agricultural  history.  —  The  date  of  the  introduc- 
tion of  Bermuda-grass  into  the  United  States  is  not  defi- 
nitely ascertained.  Spillman  gives  a  circumstantial  ac- 
count of  its  introduction  in  1812  at  Greensboro,  Georgia. 


FIG.  26.  —  Bermuda-grass  (Cynodon  dac- 
tylori).     a,  spikelet;  b,  floret. 


SOUTHERN  GRASSES  239 

However,  a  definite  and  unmistakable  account  of  Ber- 
muda-grass in  the  United  States  is  given  by  Mease, 
"  Geological  Account  of  the  United  States,"  p.  227,  pub- 
lished in  1807. 

281.  Adaptations.  —  Bermuda-grass  occurs  in  the 
United  States  generally  from  Pennsylvania  west  to  cen- 
tral Kansas  and  south  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico ;  also  in 
Arizona,  New  Mexico  and  California. 

It  extends  somewhat  farther  northward,  being  found  in 
Massachusetts  and  Washington,  but  its  continued  exist- 
ence in  the  Northern  States  is  precarious.  Much  of  it 
survived  the  cold  of  January,  1912,  in  the  District  of 
Columbia,  when  the  temperature  fell  to  —  18  °  F.  The 
spread  and  growth  of  the  grass  about  Washington, 
D.C.,  in  the  past  ten  years  seem  to  be  more  vigorous  than 
formerly,  which  may  be  due  to  gradual  acclimatization. 
That  Bermuda-grass  does  become  more  hardy  seems  to 
be  demonstrated  by  investigations  at  the  Oklahoma 
Experiment  Station,  where  the  local  established  strain 
was  able  to  withstand  —  18  °  F.  while  plots  grown  from 
Australian  seed  usually  become  winter-killed. 

In  general,  however,  Bermuda-grass  is  best  adapted 
in  the  United  States  to  the  same  general  area  as  cotton, 
and  in  this  region  is  relatively  as  important  as  is  Kentucky 
blue-grass  in  the  North.  It  has  also  become  abundant  in 
California  and  Arizona,  but  in  these  states  it  is  looked 
upon  as  a  pest  because  of  the  difficulty  it  causes  in 
alfalfa  as  a  weed,  whence  it  is  sometimes  called  "  devil- 
grass." 

Bermuda  will  grow  in  all  types  of  soil,  but  makes  its 
best  growth  on  rich,  moist  bottom  lands,  but  the  soil  must 
be  well  drained.  It  has  marked  ability  to  withstand  close 
grazing  or  close  clipping,  and  on  this  account  is  much  used 


240        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

as  a  lawn  grass.  The  slightest  touch  of  frost,  however, 
causes  the  leaves  to  turn  brown. 

On  account  of  its  ability  to  grow  on  any  type  of  soil,  and 
its  creeping  character,  Bermuda  is  an  excellent  soil  binder 
on  sandy  soil,  on  eroding  slopes  of  clay  and  in  gullies.  It 
is  very  abundant  and  useful  for  this  purpose  on  the  levees  of 
the  Mississippi  River. 

Bermuda  is  not  well  adapted  to  shade  and  perhaps  for 
this  reason  tends  to  disappear  in  fields  where  it  is  densely 
shaded  by  other  crops. 

282.  Variability.  —  Bermuda  is  a  very  variable  grass, 
and  many  forms  have  been  considered  distinct  species  by 
botanists.     Even  the  common  form  introduced  into  the 
United  States  is  very  diverse,  and  Moorhouse  at  the  Okla- 
homa Experiment  Station  has  secured  numerous  differing 
forms  by  selection.     Some  of  the  forms  are  very  distinct 
and  may  become  important.     One  of  these  recently  in- 
troduced from  Brazil  produces  superficial  runners  15  feet 
or  more  long  in  a  single  season. 

In  Florida  occurs  a  form  known  as  St.  Lucie-grass,  which 
differs  from  ordinary  Bermuda  in  never  having  under- 
ground rootstocks. 

As  Bermuda  is  easily  propagated  by  cuttings,  any 
selected  form  is  easily  maintained. 

283.  Importance. — Bermuda-grass  is  the  most  impor- 
tant perennial  grass  in  the  Southern  States,  filling  much  the 
same  position  in  respect  to  pasturage  as  Kentucky  blue- 
grass  in  the  North.     Bermuda  is  also  a  hay  grass  and  large 
quantities  are  thus  harvested,  especially  in  rich  or  alluvial 
soils.     Its  area  of  marked  value  is  mainly  south  of  latitude 
36°  —  that  is,  the  north  line  of  Tennessee  —  west  to  cen- 
tral Oklahoma.     In  this  area  it  is  even  more  aggressive 
than  Kentucky  blue-grass  in  the  North,  and,  like  the  latter 


SOUTHERN  GRASSES  241 

grass,  is  seldom  sown.  The  fact  that  both  of  these  grasses 
volunteer  so  readily  is  probably  the  reason  why  so  few 
definite  experiments  have  been  conducted  with  either. 

284.  Culture.  —  Bermuda-grass  is  planted  either  by 
sowing  the  seed  or  by  planting  "  roots."  The  seed  is  very 
fine  and  rather  expensive ;  therefore  the  seed  bed  should  be 
well  prepared  and  firm.  The  seed  is  best  sown  in  spring, 
using  about  5  pounds  to  the  acre.  To  scatter  it  evenly,  it 
is  advisable  to  mix  with  meal  or  soil  so  as  to  make  a  larger 
bulk.  After  sowing  the  ground  should  be  rolled  or  lightly 
harrowed. 

The  more  common  method  is  to  cut  or  tear  the  sod  into 
small  pieces  and  then  drop  them  in  furrows  on  plowed 
ground  or  merely  press  them  in  with  the  foot.  The  pieces 
should  be  scattered  about  2  or  3  feet  apart  each  way. 
Planting  in  this  way  is  best  done  when  the  weather  is 
likely  to  be  moist,  at  any  time  from  spring  till  midsummer. 
Under  such  conditions  the  pieces  of  sod  are  very  sure  to 
grow. 

To  save  the  loss  of  the  land  while  the  Bermuda  is  start- 
ing, it  may  be  planted  in  the  rows  of  any  intertilled  crop 
after  the  last  cultivation. 

Bermuda-grass  meadows  or  pastures  tend  to  become  sod 
bound  and  fall  off  in  yield.  When  this  is  the  case,  the 
field  should  be  disked  or  plowed  and  harrowed,  after  which 
the  growth  will  be  much  more  vigorous. 

Where  conditions  are  not  such  that  Bermuda  will  grow 
in  spite  of  bad  treatment,  care  is  necessary  to  insure  a  good 
stand.  At  the  Oklahoma  Experiment  Station  pieces  of 
sod  were  planted  in  well-prepared  land  in  4  ways :  1.  By 
placing  in  furrows  three  feet  apart  and  covering  each  root ; 
2.  By  scattering  pieces  of  sod  evenly  and  then  working 
them  into  the  soil  with  a  smoothing  harrow;  3.  Seeding 


242        FOE  AGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 

followed  by  light  harrowing;  4.  Treated  the  same  as  in 
2,  and  then  planted  to  kafir  corn  which  was  cultivated  in 
the  usual  way.  A  good  stand  was  secured  by  the  first 
method,  a  partial  stand  by  the  second,  but  the  other  two 
were  failures. 

285.  Yields  of  hay.  —  But  few  reliable  yields  of   Ber- 
muda-grass hay  have  been  recorded,  but  statements  have 
been  published  to  the  effect  that  3  to  4  tons  an  acre  are 
secured  at  times.     Probably  the  average  yield  does  not 
exceed  1  ton  an  acre. 

At  the  Oklahoma  Experiment  Station  a  field  of  2|  acres 
planted  in  June,  1905,  yielded  2584  pounds  hay  an  acre 
at  the  end  of  September,  and  in  1906  three  cuttings  gave  a 
yield  of  10,160  pounds  an  acre.  Another  plot  yielded 
during  three  years  to  the  acre  respectively,  5850,  1635  and 
1667  pounds  of  hay. 

Newman  states  that  a  field  on  bottom  land  in  Georgia 
yielded  in  three  cuttings  13,000  pounds  of  cured  hay  to 
the  acre. 

286.  Rootstocks.  —  According    to    Duggar,    the    stout 
rootstocks  when  plowed  up  are  readily  eaten  by  hogs. 
In  the  tropics  where  Bermuda-grass  is  sold  green  in  bundles 
for  horse  feed,  the  rootstocks  are  often  pulled  up  when  the 
top  growth  is  scanty.     The  same  use  of  the  rootstocks  is 
made  in  Naples,  Italy,  where  they  are  fed  to  cab  horses. 

287.  Pasture  value.  —  Bermuda  alone  or  in   mixtures 
makes  excellent  pasturage,  but  it  is  best  when  closely 
grazed.     The  stems  become  rather  tough  and  wiry  with 
age,  and  where  there  are  not  enough  animals  to  keep  it 
closely  grazed  they  feed  only  in  spots. 

Bermuda  is  so  aggressive  that  few  other  plants  will 
grow  with  it  during  summer.  Lespedeza  will  hold  its  own 
in  spots  and  the  combination  of  the  two  is  excellent. 


SOUTHERN  GRASSES  243 

Bermuda  does  not  grow  in  winter,  but  if  bur  clover  be 
sown  it  will  make  good  winter  pasturage  and  reseed  itself 
from  year  to  year.  Hairy  vetch  is  also  useful  for  the  same 
reason,  but  does  not  reseed  itself  so  well.  Another  excel- 
lent plan  is  to  seed  Bermuda  pastures  in  the  fall  to  Italian 
rye-grass,  which  grows  rapidly  and  furnishes  pasturage 
until  the  following  summer.  This  grass  is  also  often  sown 
in  Bermuda  lawns  to  make  a  green  lawn  in  the  winter. 
White  clover  is  also  an  excellent  plant  to  grow  with  Ber- 
muda for  pasturage. 

Good  Bermuda  pastures  will  carry  one  cow  to  the  acre 
during  the  summer  and  the  best  Bermuda  and  lespedeza 
mixed  pastures  will  support  two  cattle  to  the  acre  during 
the  summer. 

288.  Feeding   value.  —  The  only  feeding  experiments 
reported  are  by  the  Mississippi  Experiment  Station.     In 
one  experiment  Bermuda  was  compared  with  timothy  as  a 
hay  feed  for  work  mules,  and  the  conclusion  reached  that 
they  were  of  equal  value. 

In  experiments  with  dairy  cows  during  three  years  the 
results  indicate  that  Bermuda  hay  has  practically  the  same 
value  as  timothy  hay  for  the  production  of  milk  and  butter. 

289.  Seed-production.  —  Commercial  seed  of  Bermuda- 
grass  has  heretofore  been  obtained  wholly  from  Australia, 
but  recently  it  has  been  gathered  in  Arizona  and  southern 
California.     The  culms  are  often  only  four  or  five  inches 
high,  but  the  seed  is  held  firmly  long  after  it  becomes  ripe. 
No  data  concerning  the  yields  of  seed  seem  to  have  been 
recorded. 

In  humid  regions  Bermuda  sets  seed  sparingly  or  only 
in  periods  of  unusually  dry  weather.  Seed  has  been  found 
in  Louisiana,  Florida  and  North  Carolina,  while  at  Wash- 
ington, D.C.,  it  is  quite  freely  formed. 


244        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

The  viability  of  Australian  seed  ranges  from  56  to  84 
per  cent.  According  to  Hunt,  one  pound  contains  1,800,000 
seeds. 

JOHNSON-GRASS  (Andropogon  halepensis) 

290.  Botany.  — •  Johnson-grass  is  native  to  South  Asia 
and  about  the  borders  of  the  Mediterranean  in  Africa  and 
southernmost  Europe.     The  specific  name  comes  from  the 
city  Aleppo,  whence  it  first  became  known  to  European 
botanists. 

Two  varieties  occur  in  Europe;  namely,  the  ordinary 
form  with  awned  spikelets,  and  the  awnless  variety  sub- 
muticus.  Both  of  these  also  occur  in  the  United  States. 
In  India  there  is  another  variety  distinguished  by  having 
a  loose  drooping  panicle. 

Andropogon  halepensis  is  distinguished  from  all  forms  of 
Andropogon  sorghum  by  possessing  underground  rootstocks 
and  thus  being  truly  perennial. 

291.  Agricultural   history.  —  Johnson-grass   was  intro- 
duced into  South  Carolina  from  Turkey  about  1830.     It 
derives  its  common  name  from  Col.  William  Johnson,  who 
grew  it  extensively  near  Selma,  Alabama,  beginning  about 
1840.     In  South  Carolina  it  is  still  known  as  Means  grass. 
Governor  Means  of  that  state  had  sent  a  planter  to  Turkey 
to  instruct  the  Turks  in  cotton  culture,  and  this  planter  on  his 
return  brought  back  many  seeds,  including  Johnson-grass. 

Numerous  other  local  names  have  been  attached  to 
Johnson-grass,  among  them  Aleppo-grass,  false  guinea- 
grass,  evergreen  millet,  racehorse-grass,  etc. 

In  its  wide  spread  since  1840,  Johnson-grass  has  usually 
been  considered  more  as  a  weed  than  a  cultivated  plant, 
but  as  late  as  1884  and  1885  it  was  distributed  by  the 
California  Experiment  Station  as-  a  desirable  new  forage 
plant. 


SOUTHERN   GRASSES  245 

292.  Adaptation  and  utilization.  —  Johnson-grass  is 
adapted  to  the  whole  region  in  which  cotton  culture  is 
carried  on,  and  also  New  Mexico,  Arizona  and  California. 
It  grows  well  during  the  summer  north  of  latitude  37°, 
but  in  cold  winters  is  usually  destroyed.  In  favorable 
years  it  lives  over  winter  in  Iowa  and  the  District  of 
Columbia.  It  grows  in  all  types  of  soil,  but  prefers  rich 
land  and  an  abundant  supply  of  moisture. 

This  plant  can  scarcely  be  called  a  cultivated  grass,  as 
when  once  planted  it  is  difficult  to  eradicate,  and  therefore 
it  is  rarely  sown  intentionally.  Indeed  in  regions  where  it 
does  not  occur,  great  care  is  taken  to  keep  it  out.  Where, 
however,  it  is  established,  it  is  abundantly  utilized  both 
for  hay  and  for  pasture.  On  good  soil  two  crops  and  some- 
times three  may  be  cut  in  one  season.  Johnson-grass 
quickly  becomes  "  sod  bound,"  and  unless  plowed  up 
every  year,  or  at  least  every  two  years,  the  yield  becomes 
very  small.  Just  why  the  grass  becomes  "  sod  bound  "  is 
not  clear,  but  perhaps  it  is  connected  with  the  great  devel- 
opment of  rootstocks. 

Where  Johnson-grass  is  very  abundant,  a  common  plan 
is  to  plow  in  fall  and  plant  to  oats  or  oats  and  vetch. 
After  this  crop  is  removed,  two  good  crops  of  Johnson-grass 
hay  are. usually  obtained  the  same  season. 

North  of  the  south  line  of  Virginia  and  Kentucky  there 
is  no  good  reason  why  Johnson-grass  should  not  be  utilized 
as  an  annual  crop.  Sown  in  the  spring,  it  produces  a 
large  crop  of  hay  and  nearly  always  is  killed  in  the  winter. 
At  Arlington  Farm,  Virginia,  it  has  several  times  been 
planted  in  mixtures  with  cowpeas,  for  which  purpose  it 
is  well  adapted.  It  is  rare  that  any  of  the  grass  survives 
the  winter. 

Johnson-grass  probably  produces  more  of  the  hay  grown 


246         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 

in  the  South  than  any  other  perennial  grass,  unless  it  be 
Bermuda-grass.  In  sections  where  Johnson-grass  has 
become  very  abundant,  more  attention  is  now  being  given 
to  its  profitable  utilization  rather  than  to  undertake  the 
expense  of  eradicating  it. 

On  rich  black  soils  three  cuttings  are  sometimes  secured 
in  one  season,  the  total  yield  reaching  a  maximum  of 
about  6  tons.  Probably  about  1J  tons  is  an  average  cut- 
ting, and  2  the  usual  number  saved.  At  the  Mississippi 
Experiment  Station  the  yield  to  the  acre  on  unfertilized 
plots  was  3.75  and  4.83  tons,  an  average  of  4.29  tons  in 
two  cuttings.  The  use  of  187  pounds  cottonseed  meal  an 
acre  increased  the  yield  of  hay  to  5.54  tons,  and  460  pounds 
to  5.82  tons ;  94  pounds  of  nitrate  soda  an  acre  increased 
the  yield  to  5.54  tons,  and  189  pounds  to  5.92  tons.  Mixed 
with  cowpeas  two  cuttings  were  obtained,  aggregating  3.85 
tons  to  the  acre.  At  the  North  Carolina  Experiment  Sta- 
tion a  thin  stand  yielded  5139  pounds  of  hay  to  the  acre. 

The  rootstocks  of  Johnson-grass  are  also  readily  eaten 
by  farm  animals,  especially  hogs.  In  Texas  fields  are 
sometimes  plowed  up  in  winter  to  furnish  feed  in  this 
manner. 

293.  Poisonous  qualities.  —  Under  some  conditions 
Johnson-grass  may  cause  the  death  of  cattle  in  the  same 
manner  as  do  the  sorghums ;  namely,  by  the  formation  of 
hydrocyanic  acid.  Cases  of  this  kind  were  reported  from 
Miles  City,  Montana,  in  1885,  and  from  California  in  1905. 
It  has  also  been  reported  by  Duthie  that  Johnson-grass  in 
India  often  causes  the  death  of  cattle,  especially  in  dry 
seasons  when  the  grass  is  stunted.  No  case  of  this  kind 
has  ever  been  reported  from  the  Southern  States  where 
Johnson-grass  is  most  abundant. 

284.    Seed.  —  Seed  of  Johnson-grass  is  mainly  grown  in 


SOUTHERN   GRASSES  247 

Texas,  but  to  some  extent  in  Mississippi,  Louisiana  and 
Alabama.  The  demand  for  it  is  not  large.  The  grass  is 
commonly  cut  with  a  binder,  cured  in  the  shock  and 
thrashed  with  a  grain  separator.  The  yields  are  said  to  be 
8  or  10  bushels  per  acre,  but  a  crop  of  hay  can  be  harvested 
after  the  seed  crop.  The  commercial  seed  is  often  low  in 
viability,  seldom  testing  as  high  as  70  per  cent. 

JAPANESE  SUGAR-CANE  (Saccharum  officinarum) 

295.  History   and   characteristics.  —  The  Japanese   or 
Zwinga  sugar-cane  was  introduced  by  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  in  1878,  from  Japan.     At  first 
it  was  used  mainly  for  sirup,  but  in  recent  years  it  has 
been  employed  largely  as  forage. 

Japanese  sugar-cane  differs  from  the  varieties  grown 
for  sugar  in  having  more  numerous,  more  slender  stems ; 
firmly  attached  leaf  sheaths  which  make  it  difficult  to 
strip  the  canes ;  narrower,  smoother  leaves  than  the  varie- 
ties grown  primarily  for  sugar ;  and  especially  in  its  long 
period  of  productivity,  new  canes  growing  from  the  old 
roots  for  12  years  or  more,  apparently  without  any  tend- 
ency for  the  yield  to  lessen  on  account  of  age  of  the  plants. 
According  to  Scott,  a  new  system  of  roots  is  developed 
each  season. 

296.  Adaptations.  —  Japanese  sugar-cane  in  the  United 
States  is  adapted  only  to  the  region  south  of  latitude  33°, 
except  in  California,  where  it  has  succeeded  fairly  well  in 
the   Sacramento    Valley.     A   temperature   of   about    15° 
F.  is  about  the  minimum  the  roots  will  withstand.     It  is 
apparently  more  resistant  to  cold  than  any  other  variety. 

Sugar-cane  will  grow  in  any  type  of  soil  if  fairly  well 
drained,  but  large  yields  are  secured  only  on  fertile 


248        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 

297.  Planting.  —  Japanese  sugar-cane,  like  other  varie- 
ties, has  never  been  known  to  bloom  in  the  United  States. 
It  is  propagated  by  laying  the  mature  canes  in  shallow 
furrows  6  to  8  inches  deep  and  then  covering.     To  insure  a 
full  stand  it  is  best  to  lay  two  canes  side  by  side  for  the 
whole  length  of  the  furrow,  breaking  joints  in  laying,  as 
the  basal  nodes  are  most  sure  to  sprout.     The  canes  may 
be  cut  into  pieces  of  3  or  4  joints,  and  this  is  necessary  if 
the  canes  are  crooked.     In  the  tropics  the  tops  of  the  canes 
are  often  used  for  immediate  planting. 

The  rows  are  usually  planted  about  8  feet  apart,  as  the 
individual  plants  stool  greatly  with  age,  and  narrower 
rows  do  not  leave  room  to  cultivate. 

The  canes  are  sometimes  planted  in  November,  which 
is  satisfactory  in  central  and  south  Florida,  but  farther 
north  spring  planting  is  advisable,  as  otherwise  there  is 
danger  of  winter-killing. 

298.  Culture.  —  Japanese  cane  is  cultivated  much  like 
corn.      Deep  cultivation  is  desirable  in  early  spring   as 
soon   as   growth  begins.      Later  cultivations  should  be 
shallower. 

The  use  of  fertilizers  increases  the  yield  greatly,  and  the 
yield  promptly  falls  off  if  fertilizers  are  not  used,  at  least 
on  ordinary  Florida  soils.  The  experiments  thus  far 
reported  do  not  show  clearly  what  fertilizers  are  best  to 
use. 

299.  Utilization.  —  Japanese  cane  may  be  utilized  as 
dry  fodder,  silage  or  pasture.     The  crop  should  be  allowed 
to  become  as  mature  as  possible  without  danger  of  frost 
injury.     If  cut  early,  the  plants  are  much  weakened  or 
even  killed. 

The  experience  of  the  Florida  Experiment  Station  is 
that  the  silage  keeps  well  and  is  relished  by  all  live-stock. 


SOUTHERN   GRASSES  249 

Under  Florida  conditions  Japanese  cane  silage  is  about  one- 
third  cheaper  than  corn  or  sorghum  silage  on  account  of 
the  larger  yields. 

The  dried  fodder  also  makes  excellent  feed,  but  on 
account  of  the  hard  stems  is  best  shredded.  When  stored 
in  a  barn  it  keeps  well  for  six  months  or  more,  but  there 
is  considerable  loss  if  left  in  the  field  in  shocks. 

The  cheapest  way  to  utilize  the  crop  is  by  pasturing 
to  cattle  and  hogs,  which  may  be  done  from  November  till 
March.  The  animals  eat  the  leaves  and  tops  first,  but 
finally  leave  nothing  but  the  hardest  stubble. 

At  the  Louisiana  Experiment  Station  the  experience  has 
been  less  favorable,  the  hard  canes  making  the  mouths  of 
cattle  sore,  and  even  when  preserved  as  silage  being  but 
little  better. 

300.  Yields.  —  There  are  no  definite  figures  as  to  the 
yield  of  Japanese  sugar-cane,  but  in  the  region  to  which  it 
is  adapted,  it  far  outyields  any  similar  plant.     Good  yields 
probably  amount  to  about  30  tons  green  matter  an  acre, 
and  maximum  yields  to  double  this  or  even  more. 

301.  Seed  cane.  —  Canes   for  propagation    should   be 
fully  mature  if  possible,  but  in  any  event  should  be  har- 
vested before  frost.     To  preserve  them  for  spring  planting, 
they  must  be  protected  from  frost  in  a  well-drained  place. 
The  usual  method  is  to  dig  a  trench  where  the  ground  is 
well  drained  and  to  cover  the  stripped  and  topped  canes 
with  enough  soil  or  trash  to  protect  them  from  freezing. 
It  is  considered  safer  to  bank  the  canes  in  several  small 
trenches  rather  than  in  one  large  one.     Sometimes  the 
canes  are  simply  piled  on  the  surface  and  then  covered 
with  soil,  manure  or  straw. 

To  plant  an  acre  in  rows  8  feet  wide  requires  about 
3000  whole  canes. 


250     'FORAGE  PLANTS  AND  THEIR  CULTURE 


OTHER    SOUTHERN    GRASSES 

302.  Carpet-grass  (Axonopus  compressus).  —  Carpet- 
grass  or  Louisiana-grass,  called  by  the  Creoles  in  Louisiana 
*'  petit  gazon,"  is  now  widespread  in  the  tropics  and  sub- 
tropics  of  Doth  hemispheres,  but  it  is  probably  native  to 
America.  It  was  first  described  from  Jamaica  in  1788, 
next  from  Porto  Rico  in  1804.  It  may  be  native  to 
Florida. 

Carpet-grass  is  a  perennial  with  creeping  rootstocks  and 
numerous  short,  rather  broad,  flat  leaves.  The  slender 
culms  rarely  reach  a  height  of  two  feet.  This  grass  has 
been  known  in  the  Southern  States  for  many  years  and  is 
now  widespread  from  about  latitude  32°  to  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  and  west  to  central  Texas.  It  thrives  best  in 
sandy  land,  especially  where  moist,  and  in  such  situations 
makes  a  fine  dense  sward. 

On  sandy  lands  in  Florida  and  near  the  Gulf  Coast  car- 
pet-grass is  very  aggressive,  and  wherever  the  land  is 
closely  pastured,  it  is  the  principal  grass.  It  stands 
trampling  and  heavy  pasturing  without  injury  and  seems 
to  thrive  best  under  such  conditions. 

Carpet-grass  can  scarcely  be  considered  a  cultivated 
grass,  and  commercial  seed  is  seldom  obtainable.  This 
grass  now  occurs  in  nearly  all  the  area  to  which  it  is 
adapted  so  that  it  is  rarely  necessary  to  plant  it  especially. 
Where  this  is  desirable,  however,  carpet-grass  may  be 
planted  by  scattering  small  pieces  of  sod,  as  in  the  case  of 
Bermuda-grass.  Or  better,  the  grass  may  be  permitted 
to  seed,  mowed  when  mature  and  the  straw  with  the 
attached  seed  scattered  over  the  field  where  it  is  desired. 

Carpet-grass  requires  both  abundant  heat  and  moisture 
for  its  best  development,  and  under  such  conditions  may 


SOUTHERN  GRASSES  251 

be  pastured  from  May  until  November.     During  the  cool 
weather  of  winter  it  makes  practically  no  growth. 

PASPALUM 

303.  Paspalum  (Paspalum  dilatatum)  is  a  native  of 
Argentina  and  perhaps  also  of  the  Gulf  States.  At  any 
rate  it  occurs  apparently  native  from  North  Carolina  to 
Florida  and  west  to  Texas.  The  probabilities  are,  how- 
ever, that  it  was  introduced  into  the  Southern  States  where 
it  has  been  known  at  least  50  years.  It  is  readily  dis- 
tinguished from  related  native  species  by  having  the 
glumes  and  sterile  lemma  ciliate  with  long  hairs. 

This  grass  is  known  also  under  the  names  of  large  water- 
grass,  golden  crown-grass  and  hairy-flowered  paspalum. 
It  is  a  smooth  perennial,  with  a  deep,  strong  root  system, 
and  grows  in  clumps  or  bunches  2  to  4  feet  high.  The 
leaves  are  numerous  near  the  ground,  but  few  on  the 
stems.  The  stems  are  weak  and  spreading,  seldom  erect 
unless  supported  by  other  grasses.  Its  habit  makes  it 
much  better  adapted  to  pastures  than  for  meadows,  but 
where  abundant  it  is  cut  for  hay. 

Paspalum  can  scarcely  be  called  a  cultivated  grass  in 
the  United  States,  as  it  is  seldom  sown,  but  is  welcomed 
in  pastures  where  it  appears  spontaneously.  Some 
farmers  collect  seed  and  scatter  in  pastures  to  induce  its 
spread.  The  best  seeds  are  produced  late  in  the  season. 
As  a  pasture  grass  it  is  desirable  from  the  abundance  of 
leaves  it  produces,  and  the  fact  that  it  remains  green  and 
grows  in  all  but  the  very  coldest  part  of  the  year.  It  is 
quite  tussocky  in  habit,  however,  and  so  is  best  in  mix- 
tures. 

In  New  South  Wales,  paspalum  has  proven  valuable  as 
a  hay  and  pasture  grass  and  has  there  been  greatly  praised 


252        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 


by  agriculturists.  It  is  said  to  remain  green  when  all 
other  grasses  are  dried  up,  and  several  successive  cuttings, 
aggregating  13  tons  (green  feed)  an  acre,  were  obtained 

at  the  Wollongar 
Experiment  Station 
the  season  following 
the  seeding.  In  the 
Tweed  district  pas- 
palum  pasture  is  said 
to  support  one  dairy 
cow  to  the  acre  the 
year  round. 

In  the  United  States 
paspalum  is  adapted 
to  practically  the  same 
area  as  the  cotton 
plant,  excepting  that 
it  does  not  spread 
west  of  the  humid 
eastern  portion  of 
Texas.  While  it  oc- 
curs on  all  types  of 
soil  it  is  most  abun- 
dant on  rich  black  soils 
and  bottom  lands. 

Paspalum  has  given 
fair  results  under  irri- 
gation in  the  San 

Joaquin  Valley,  California,  but  does  not  yield  heavily 
enough  to  warrant  cultivation. 

It  produces  seed  freely,  but  it  ripens  unevenly  and 
shatters  easily.  In  the  Southern  States  the  flowers  are 
nearly  always  affected  by  a  black  fungus  and  apparently 


FIG.  27.  —  Paspalum  dilatotum.  a,  show- 
ing arrangement  of  spikelcts ;  b,  a  single 
spikelet ;  c  and  d,  floret. 


SOUTHERN  GRASSES  253 

only  a  small  percentage  of  the  seed  is  good.  Commercial 
seed  comes  wholly  from  Australia,  but  it  rarely  germinates 
over  50  per  cent  and  is  high  priced. 

PARA-GRASS 

304.  Para-grass  (Panicum  barbinode). —  Para-grass  is 
probably  native  to  South  America  and  first  became  known 
to  botanists  from  Brazil.  It  is  a  coarse  growing  species, 
differing  from  most  other  grasses  by  producing  stout 
runners  as  thick  as  a  lead  pencil  which  reach  a  length  of 
15  to  40  feet.  These  runners  take  root  at  the  nodes  and 
thus  give  rise  to  independent  plants.  Where  there  is 
shrubbery  to  support  them  they  may  reach  a  height  of 
15  feet.  The  leaves  are  rather  short,  rarely  longer  than 
one  foot  and  about  one-half  inch  wide.  The  sheaths  are 
quite  pubescent  as  are  the  nodes  also.  When  growing 
thickly  para-grass  will  under  favorable  conditions  make  a 
dense  mass  of  herbage  3  or  4  feet  high. 

Para-grass  is  a  tropical  species  and  adapted  to  wet  or 
moist  land.  In  Brazil,  Ceylon  and  elsewhere  it  is  much 
grown  and  fed  green  to  animals.  It  is  sometimes  difficult 
to  eradicate  in  the  tropics  and  is  especially  troublesome  in 
sugar-cane  fields.  In  the  United  States  it  is  adapted  only 
to  Florida  and  the  Gulf  Coast  to  southern  Texas.  In 
Arizona  and  California  it  has  been  tried  under  irrigation, 
but  has  not  done  very  well,  apparently  requiring  a  humid 
climate.  Para-grass  has  survived  the  winter  at  Charleston, 
S.C.,  and  can  probably  be  grown  wherever  the  winter 
temperature  does  not  fall  below  18°  F.  It  often  grows 
along  stream  banks  where  it  is  covered  with  water  for  a 
month  or  more  at  a  time,  conditions  which  do  not  harm  it 
in  the  least.  On  the  margins  of  ponds  it  is  frequently  seen 
growing  in  shallow  water. 


254        FORAGE  PLANTS   AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

On  account  of  its  coarseness  and  rapid  growth,  para- 
grass  makes  an  enormous  yield.  In  Florida  it  is  often  cut 
three  and  four  times  during  a  season,  and  yields  as  high 
as  4  tons  may  be  harvested  in  a  single  cutting.  There  is 
no  particular  time  to  cut  para-grass,  but  it  is  usually  done 
when  the  grass  is  2  to  3  feet  high.  The  hay  is  coarse  but 
readily  eaten  by  both  horses  and  cattle. 

To  secure  the  best  yields,  it  is  desirable  to  plow  the  field 
each  spring,  which  stimulates  the  growth  of  the  grass. 
Some  planters  sow  the  plowed  land  to  cowpeas  and  then 
get  a  mixed  crop  of  cowpeas  and  grass  at  the  first 
cutting. 

Para-grass  is  coming  into  larger  use  in  southern  Texas 
and  some  extensive  fields  are  now  grown  under  irrigation. 
Where  the  climate  is  warm  and  moist  no  other  grass 
produces  equally  large  yields  on  wet  lands. 

This  grass  is  easily  propagated  by  cuttings  of  the  long 
prostrate  runners.  These  are  cut  into  lengths  of  2  or  3 
joints,  and  then  merely  pushed  into  the  ground  at  intervals 
of  5  to  10  feet  or  even  more.  This  may  be  done  on  spe- 
cially prepared  land  or  in  between  the  rows  of  cultivated 
crops.  During  the  first  season  para-grass  usually  pro- 
duces only  prostrate  runners  unless  the  cuttings  are 
planted  thickly.  After  the  ground  has  become  well  cov- 
ered with  the  runners,  upright  branches  are  produced, 
and  when  growing  thickly  all  the  shoots  become  ascending. 

The  seed  of  para-grass  is  not  very  satisfactory,  and,  as 
it  shatters  very  readily,  is  seldom  gathered.  It  is  pro- 
duced most  abundantly  during  dry  weather  when  the 
growth  becomes  reduced. 

305.  Guinea-grass  (Panicum  maximum}.  —  Guinea- 
grass  is  native  to  Africa  and  has  been  considered  native  in 
Brazil,  but  first  became  known  to  botanists  from  the  West 


SOUTHERN   GRASSES  255 

Indies.  It  was  known  in  Jamaica  before  1756  as  guinea- 
grass  ;  in  Guadeloupe  before  1786 ;  in  Dominica  before 
1791,  and  in  Cuba  in  1804.  According  to  Trimen  it  was 
introduced  into  Jamaica  in  1774  from  west  tropical  Africa 
by  John  Ellis  as  food  for  some  birds  he  had  imported. 
From  Jamaica  it  was  introduced  into  India  in  1808.  It  is 
now  quite  generally  grown  in  the  tropics  and  cut  green  as 
feed  for  horses  and  cattle.  In  Cuba  large  areas  are  now 
covered  with  a  spontaneous  growth  of  the  grass.  It  was 
introduced  into  the  United  States  as  early  as  1813  when  it 
was  grown  at  Natchez,  Mississippi.  It  is  well  adapted 
only  to  Florida  and  a  narrow  strip  along  the  Gulf  Coast  to 
southern  Texas.  In  Arizona  and  California  it  does  fairly 
well  under  irrigation,  but  has  not  come  into  agricultural 
use  in  these  states. 

Guinea-grass  is  a  long-lived  perennial,  with  short  creep- 
ing rootstocks,  single  plants  often  making  tufts  4  feet 
in  diameter.  The  culms  are  about  as  large  as  a  lead  pencil 
and  in  the  ordinary  form  strictly  erect,  reaching  a  height 
of  6  to  10  feet.  The  leaves  are  1  to  3  feet  long,  flat  and 
about  one-fourth  to  one  and  one-half  inches  wide.  The 
panicles  are  erect,  pyramidal,  loose  and  open,  a  foot 
or  more  long.  The  spikelets  shed  promptly  as  they 
mature. 

Guinea-grass  from  different  sources  shows  considerable 
variation.  One  form  from  South  Africa  is  smaller,  4  to  6 
feet  tall,  and  the  culms  are  decumbent  at  the  base,  and 
rooting  at  the  nodes.  Another,  too  late  even  to  bloom  at 
the  Florida  Experiment  Station,  has  leaves  as  broad  as 
those  of  corn. 

In  the  tropics  guinea-grass  is  used  wholly  for  soiling, 
and  on  uplands  no  other  grass  will  yield  as  well.  In 
Florida  and  along  the  Gulf  Coast,  it  may  be  cut  from  4  to  6 


256         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 

times,  if  cut  when  it  is  two  feet  high  or  less.  It  should  not 
be  allowed  to  bloom,  as  the  stems  are  rather  hard  and 
woody. 

Guinea-grass  is  not  well  adapted  for  hay  on  account  of 
its  bunch  habit,  but  this  is  much  less  pronounced  when  it  is 
grown  thickly.  The  seeds  shatter  promptly  as  they 
mature,  but  can  be  secured  by  cutting  off  the  panicles 
before  they  are  fully  mature  and  curing  in  the  shade. 

This  grass  may  be  propagated  by  root  divisions,  or 
seedlings  may  be  grown  and  then  transplanted.  The  best 
results  are  secured  when  the  grass  is  planted  in  rows  5  or  6 
feet  wide  and  3  feet  apart  in  the  row,  so  that  it  can  be 
cultivated.  Thus  planted  it  will  yield  an  enormous 
amount  of  green  matter,  probably  more  than  any  other 
similar  grass.  Guinea-grass  is  killed  when  the  tempera- 
ture reaches  about  18°  F. 

306.  Rescue-grass  (Bromus  unioloides),  also  known  as 
Schrader's  brome-grass,  Arctic-grass,  Australian  brome 
and  Australian  oats,  is  native  to  Argentina,  but  was  early 
introduced  in  the  Southern  States,  where  it  now  appears 
spontaneously  in  many  places.  The  first  definite  record 
of  its  introduction  is  1853,  in  which  year  it  was  advertised 
and  highly  praised  by  B.  V.  Iverson  of  Columbus,  Georgia, 
who  apparently  first  used  the  name  rescue-grass. 

Rescue-grass  is  a  short-lived  perennial,  but  under  cul- 
tivation behaves  practically  as  an  annual.  It  commonly 
grows  to  a  height  of  2J  or  4  feet,  the  culms  terminated  by  a 
large,  open,  somewhat  drooping  panicle. 

It  is  naturally  adapted  to  humid  regions  of  mild  winters, 
springing  up  in  the  fall,  growing  through  the  yvinter  and 
maturing  in  early  summer.  It  does  not  make  much 
growth  on  poor  land,  but  on  rich  soils  is  probably  the  best 
grass  for  temporary  winter  pastures  in  the  South.  On  such 


SOUTHERN   GRASSES 


257 


soils  it  also  grows  large  enough  to  cut  for  hay,  and  under 
favorable  conditions  two  cuttings  may  be  obtained. 

In  the  North  rescue-grass  survives  the  winter  at  Arling- 
ton Farm,  Virginia, 
and  in  the  grass  gar- 
den survives  4  or  5 
years,  but  it  cannot 
compete  with  the  bet- 
ter northern  grasses 
in  yield. 

In  Australia  rescue- 
grass  has  become  quite 
important  and  practi- 
cally all  of  the  com- 
mercial seed  is  grown 
there.  The  seeding 
habits  are  excellent 
and  the  seed  moder- 
ate in  price. 

R e s c u e-g r a s s  is 
probably  deserving  of 
more  attention  in  the 
South  than  it  has  re- 
ceived, especially  for 
winter  pasturage  on 
good  land.  It  should 
be  sown  in  early  fall, 
and  may  often  be 
pastured  by  December  but  usually  not  till  February. 
The  seeding  rate  generally  recommended  is  30  to  40 
pounds  per  acre.  It  is  always  a  desirable  constituent  of 
mixed  pastures  with  such  winter-growing  plants  as  bur 
clover,  vetches,  orchard-grass  and  Italian  rye-grass. 


FIG.    28.  —    Rescue-grass    (Bromus    uni- 
oloides).     a,  glumes;  b,  lemma;  c,  palea. 


258        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 

307.  Crab-grass  (Digitaria  sanguinalis]  is  a  native  of 
the  Old  World,  early  introduced  into  the  United  States  as 
a  weed.     The  older  agricultural  writers  mostly  speak  of  it 
as  "  crop-grass/'  of  which  the  more  modern  term  seems  to 
be  a  corruption.     It  is  an  annual  weedy  grass  that  appears 
with  the  advent  of  hot  weather  and  is  promptly  killed  by 
the  first  frost  in  fall.     It  makes  an  abundant  growth  in 
cultivated  ground  from  which  winter  crops  have  been 
harvested,  or  even  after  early  summer  crops,  such  as  oats 
and  potatoes.     Perhaps  more  crab-grass  is  cut  for  hay  in 
the  South  than  any  other  one  grass.     The  hay  is  consid- 
ered fair  in  quality  if  cut  about  the  time  the  first  heads 
mature. 

Crab-grass  is  always  a  spontaneous  crop  and  is  never 
sown,  nor  is  the  seed  handled  commercially.  In  lawns  it 
becomes  a  destructive  weed,  as  it  makes  dense  mats  which 
smother  out  other  grasses. 

308.  Natal-grass    (Tricholcena    rosea)    is     an     annual, 
native  of  Natal.  South  Africa,  now  grown  commonly  in 
India,  Australia,  the  Hawaiian  Islands  and   other  warm 
regions.     Sometimes   it   is    called   Australian   redtop   or 
Hawaiian  redtop,  but  it  has  no  relation  to  true  redtop. 
It  is  a  summer  annual  and  in  America  is  adapted  only  to 
Florida  and  the  Gulf  Coast  region.  The  dark  rose-colored, 
loose  panicles  are  very  attractive.     It  is  similar  to  com- 
mon crab-grass  in  its  habit  of  growth,  but  is  larger,  more 
leafy  and  bears  moderate  frosts  with  less   injury.     The 
best  growth  is  made  on  rather  sandy  soils,  and  in  Florida 
after  the  ground  is  once  seeded  it  makes  an  abundant 
volunteer  growth  after  Irish  potatoes,  melons,  oats  and 
other  early  crops  have  been  gathered.     It  was  introduced 
into  Florida  about  twenty  years  ago  and  is  now  very  abun- 
dant in   scattered   areas   through   that   state.     For   fall 


SOUTHERN  GRASSES  259 

and  winter  grazing  it  is  excellent  and  the  hay  is  of  good 
quality,  especially  when  mixed  with  cowpeas.  It  begins 
its  growth  so  early  in  the  season  that  it  is  usually  killed 
by  any  summer  cultivation  which  may  be  given  the  field, 
so  that  it  is  rarely  seen  in  cotton  or  corn  fields.  The 
glumes  are  very  hairy  and  light,  so  the  seed  must  be  gath- 
ered by  stripping.  Seed  may  be  sown  broadcast  at  any 
time  from  November  to  April  and  needs  no  special  atten- 
tion. 

Natal-grass  is  valuable  wherever  it  will  continue  to 
volunteer  from  year  to  year,  but  its  seed  habits  and  small 
yield  do  not  commend  it  for  growing  in  rotations.  Some 
commercial  seed  is  grown  in  Australia. 

Seeds  from  different  sources  show  that  the  plant  is  quite 
variable,  and  some  forms  are  decidedly  more  valuable 
than  others.  A  related  species,  T.  teneriffce,  is  perennial 
and  may  prove  valuable  for  permanent  pastures  in  Florida. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

SORGHUMS 
SORGHUM  (Andropogon  sorghum) 

THE  numerous  varieties  of  sorghum  are  cultivated  in  the 
Old  World  for  three  distinct  purposes  ;  namely,  grain,  sirup 
and  brooms,  and  but  incidentally  for  forage.  In  the 
United  States  the  utilization  of  the  crop  for  forage  far 
exceeds  its  other  uses  at  present,  though  the  culture  of 
broom-corn  is  important,  and  the  harvesting  of  the  crop 
as  grain  is  increasing.  Sorghum  is  potentially  of  enormous 
importance  in  America  because  of  its  adaptation  to  regions 
too  dry  for  Indian  corn. 

309.  Botany.  —  The  botanical  origin  of  the  cultivated 
sorghums  is  a  complex  problem.  Hackel  on  the  basis  of 
extensive  studies  reached  the  conclusion  that  all  the 
cultivated  forms  as  well  as  the  different  forms  of  Johnson- 
grass  represent  but  one  botanical  species.  However, 
the  wild  forms  easily  separate  into  two  groups ;  namely, 
the  perennials  with  rootstocks  like  Johnson-grass  and  its 
3  or  4  varieties ;  and  the  annuals  which  lack  rootstocks, 
like  Sudan-grass,  •  Tunis-grass  and  others.  As  the  latter 
cross  spontaneously  and  abundantly  with  the  cultivated 
sorghums  while  the  former  can  be  crossed  only  with  diffi- 
culty, it  seems  more  logical  to  admit  two  species,  Johnson- 
grass  and  its  varieties  (Andropogon  halepensis)  and  the 
annual  sorghums  (Andropogon  sorghum)  including  Sudan- 
grass. 

260 


SORGHUMS  261 

The  wild  annuals  so  far  as  known  are  confined  to  Africa, 
but  one  occurs  perhaps  introduced  in  Tahiti  and  Samoa. 
From  this  fact  the  cultivated  sorghums  probably  originated 
in  Africa,  a  conclusion  also  supported  by  the  fact  that  the 
diversity  of  the  African  varieties  both  wild  and  cultivated 
is  far  greater  than  that  of  all  other  regions.  Tunis-grass 
may  be  considered  very  near  the  wild  original  form  and 
Sudan-grass  a  variety  somewhat  improved  by  cultivation. 
There  are  several  other  wild  forms  in  different  parts  of 
Africa  concerning  which  but  little  is  known. 

310.  Agricultural  history.  —  The  culture  of  the  sor- 
ghums is  doubtless  very  ancient,  far  antedating  history. 
The  first  definite  records  are  illustrations  on  ancient 
Egyptian  ruins  dating  from  about  220'0  B.C.  of  what  is, 
with  scarcely  a  doubt,  some  variety  of  sorghum.  Bret- 
scheider  finds  evidence  in  Chinese  writings  that  sorghums 
were  cultivated  in  China  as  early  as  the  third  century  of 
the  Christian  Era.  Old  Sanskrit  writings,  dating  back 
1900  years,  mention  what  is  quite  surely  a  grain  sorghum 
grown  in  India  at  that  time.  In  ancient  Greek  writings 
there  are  no  clear  references  to  sorghum,  but  the  plant  was 
known  to  Pliny,  who  states  that  it  was  introduced  into 
Italy  from  India  about  60  A.D. 

More  potent  than  the  brief  records  of  ancient  history  is 
the  mute  testimony  that  the  plant  itself  affords  by  its 
early  wide  distribution  and  the  astonishing  diversity  of  its 
cultivated  forms.  Its  culture  probably  extended  through- 
out Africa  in  prehistoric  times  and  early  spread  to  the 
southern  half  of  Asia  as  far  northeast  as  Manchuria.  In 
the  latter  country  an  entirely  distinct  group  of  forms  has 
been  developed,  the  kowliangs  ;  and  the  East  Indian  forms 
also  are  very  different  from  those  of  Africa. 

In  America,  the  first  sorghum  to  be  introduced  was 


262         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 

doubtless  the  Guinea  corn,  brought  from  Africa  to  the 
West  Indies  before  1707,  at  which  date  it  was  much  cul- 
tivated in  Jamaica.  In  the  United  States  broom-corn 
sorghums  were  grown  in  colonial  times,  but  the  first  definite 
record  of  a  sweet  sorghum  was  that  introduced  in  1853 
from  France,  the  variety  then  called  Chinese  sorghum  and 
much  like  that  now  called  Amber.  In  1857  it  was  widely 
distributed  by  the  United  States  Patent  Office. 

Since  1857  numerous  varieties  have  been  introduced 
into  the  United  States,  mainly  by  the  Department  of 
Agriculture,  from  all  parts  of  the  world  where  the  crop  is 
grown,  as  with  the  agricultural  development  of  the  semi- 
arid  region  the  sorghums  have  become  increasingly  impor- 
tant. 

311.  Adaptations.  —  Sorghums  are  adapted  to  regions 
having  a  warm  summer  climate.  The  earliest  known 
varieties  will  mature  with  three  months  of  warm  weather, 
but  some  of  the  tropical  African  varieties  barely  come  into 
bloom  in  Florida  in  7  months.  In  regions  of  long,  cool 
summers  like  northern  Europe,  sorghums  are  of  but  little 
value. 

No  degree  of  summer  heat  seems  too  intense  for  the 
sorghums,  but  they  are  injured  both  in  spring  and  in  fall 
by  light  frosts. 

Sorghum  has  no  marked  preference  for  soil  except  that 
it  be  well  drained.  On  account  of  its  deep  roots  a  permea- 
ble subsoil  is  desirable. 

In  general  the  climatic  and  soil  adaptations  of  sorghums 
are  nearly  identical  with  those  of  corn.  Sorghum,  how- 
ever, suffers  less  than  corn  from  intense  heat,  lack  of 
humidity  or  insufficient  soil  moisture,  often  remaining 
fresh  and  green  when  corn  is  completely  destroyed,  or 
remaining  semi-dormant  during  short  periods  of  extreme 


SORGHUMS  263 

drought  and  again  growing  with  the  advent  of  favorable 
weather.  On  these  accounts  it  is  especially  well  adapted 
to  agriculture  in*  semi-arid  regions. 

312.  Root  system.  —  In  Ten  Eyck's  studies  at  the  Kan- 
sas Experiment  Station,  the  roots  of  kafir  and  of  Folger 
sorgo  were  found  to  extend  to  a  depth  of  3J  feet,  but  at 
that  depth  were  less  abundant  than  those  of  corn.     Both 
varieties,  especially  the  kafir  corn,  produced  an  enormous 
amount  of  roots  in  the  upper  18  inches.     The  sorghums 
therefore  have  a  root  system  especially  well  adapted  to  use 
shallow  moisture  promptly. 

In  Russian  investigations  the  roots  of  two  varieties 
of  sorghum  penetrated  respectively  106  and  110  centi- 
meters, while  corn  roots  went  to  a  depth  of  113  centi- 
meters and  spread  laterally  to  a  greater  extent  than  the 
sorghum. 

The  drought  resistance  of  sorghums  would  therefore 
seem  not  to  be  especially  associated  with  the  development 
of  the  root  system. 

313.  Agricultural  groups.  —  No  other  cultivated  crop 
exhibits  as  great  a  diversity  as  does  sorghum.     Varieties 
have  been  developed  for  three  distinct  purposes ;  namely, 
grain,  sugar  and  broom-straw.      All  three  of  the  groups 
also .  produce   forage    as    a   by-product.     A    satisfactory 
classification  of  the  very  numerous  forms  of  tropical  Africa 
is  not  at  present  possible,  but  very  many  of  them  have 
been  named  by  botanists.     So  far  as  the  forms  cultivated 
in  America  are  concerned,  the  classification  into  groups  as 
proposed  by  Ball  is  here  adopted,  adding  another  group, 
however,  to  include  Sudan-grass  and  Tunis-grass. 

*  Stems  slender,  rarely  exceeding  6  mm.  in  diameter ;  leaves 
relatively  narrow,  12  to  30  mm.  broad ;  panicles  loose ;  spikelets 


264        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 

lanceolate,  2  to  3  mm.  broad,  readily  shattering  (Tunis-grass) 
or  persisting  (Sudan-grass).  I  Grass  sorghums. 

**  Stems  stout,  usually  18  to  30  mm.  in  diameter ;  leaves 
broader,  45  to  75  mm.  broad ;    panicles  various. 

I.  Pith  juicy. 

A.  Juice  abundant  and  very  sweet. 

1.  Internodes  elongated;  sheaths  scarcely  overlap- 
ping ;  leaves  12-15  (except  in  Amber  varieties) ; 
spikelets  elliptic-oval  to  obovate,  2.5-3.5  mm. 
wide  ;  grains  reddish  brown.  II  Sorgo. 

B.  Juice  scanty,  slightly  sweet  to  subacid. 

1.  Internodes   short ;     sheaths   strongly   overlapping ; 

leaves  12—15  ;  peduncles  erect ;  panicles  cylin- 
drical;  spikelets  obovate,  3-4  mm.  wide;  lem- 
mas awnless.  Ill  Kafir. 

2.  Internodes  medium  ;    sheaths  scarcely  overlapping  ; 

leaves  8-11;  peduncles  mostly  inclined,  often 
recurved ;  panicles  ovate ;  spikelets  broadly 
ovate,  4.5-6  mm.  wide  ;  lemmas  awned. 

VIII    Milo. 

II.  Pith  dry. 

A.  Panicle  lax,  2.5-7  dm.  long ;  peduncles  erect ;  spike- 
lets  elliptic-oval  or  'obovate,  2.5-3.5  mm.  wide; 
lemmas  awned. 

1.  Panicle  4-7  dm.  long ;    rhachis  less  than  one-fifth 

as  long  as  the  panicle. 

.  a.  Panicle  umbelliform,  the  branches  greatly 
elongated,  the  tips  drooping ;  grains  reddish, 
included.  IV  Broom-corn. 

2.  Panicle  2.5-4  dm.  long;    rhachis  more  than  two- 

thirds  as  long  as  the  panicle. 

a.  Panicle  conical,  the  branches  strongly  drooping ; 
glumes  at  maturity  spreading  and  involute ; 
grains  white  or  somewhat  buff.  V  Shallu, 


SORGHUMS  265 

6.  Panicle  oval  or  obovate,  the  branches  spread- 
ing; glumes  at  maturity  appressed,  not  invo- 
lute ;  grains  white,  brown  or  reddish. 

VI    Kowliang. 

B.  Panicle  compact,  1-2.5  dm.  long;  peduncles  erect  or 
recurved  ;  rhachis  more  than  two-thirds  as  long  as  the 
panicle. 

1.  Spikelets    elliptic-oval    or   obovate,    2.5-3.5    mm. 

wide  ;   lemmas  awned.  VI    Kowliang. 

2.  Spikelets  broadly  obovate,  4.5-6  mm.  wide. 

a.  Glumes  gray  or  greenish,  not  wrinkled  ;  densely 

pubescent ;  lemmas  awned  or  awnless ;  grains 
strongly  flattened.  VII    Durra. 

b.  Glumes    deep    brown    or    black,    transversely 

wrinkled  ;   thinly  pubescent ;   lemmas  awned  ; 
grains  slightly  flattened.  VIII    Milo. 

Of  the  above  eight  groups,  Durra,  Milo,  Shallu,  Kowli- 
ang and  Kafir  were  primarily  developed  as  grain  crops, 
though  the  last  also  contains  sugar ;  Sorgo  was  developed 
for  its  sugar ;  Broom-corn  for  its  stiff  fascicled  straws ; 
and  the  grass  sorghums  are  useful  primarily  for  fodder. 
The  waste  herbage  of  each  group  is,  however,  used  as  fodder 
wherever  cultivated.  In  America  probably  three-fourths 
of  the  total  herbage  produced  by  all  the  sorghums  is  con- 
sumed as  coarse  forage.  Indeed,  the  only  portions  not 
thus  harvested  are  the  brooms  of  broom-corn ;  the  stalks 
from  which  sirup  is  extracted ;  and  the  increasing  propor- 
tion of  milo,  kafir  and  durra  which  is  headed  for  grain,  at 
the  present  time  not  over  one-half  the  acreage. 

Sorghums  are  sometimes  classified  into  saccharine  and 
non-saccharine,  depending  on  whether  they  contain  sugar 
in  the  stalks.  The  discussion  of  forage  sorghums  is  here 
limited  to  the  varieties  and  methods  used  where  the  whole 
plant  is  usually  harvested  and  thus  utilized. 


266         FORAGE  PLANTS   AND    THEIR    CULTURE 

314.  Importance.  —  The    relative    importance    of    the 
sorghum  as  forage  in  America  is  difficult  to  estimate, 
mainly  on  account  of  the  four  purposes  —  grain,  forage, 
sirup  and  brooms  —  for  which  the  crop  is  grown.      The 
importance  of  the  crop  for  much  of  the  semi-arid  region, 
especially  the  unirrigated  lands  between  longitude  98°  W. 
and  the  Rocky  Mountains,  is  so  great  that  over  much  of 
the  region  it  forms  the  basis  of  possible  agriculture.     In 
more  humid  areas  it  comes  into  competition  with  corn. 
Other  competitive  crops  like  teosinte  and  penicillaria  have 
practically   been   driven   from   American   agriculture   by 
sorghum,  but  in  Florida  and  the  Gulf  Coast  region  Japan- 
ese sugar-cane  will  give  larger  forage  returns  than  sorghum, 
but  the  latter  is  grown  on  account  of  its  usefulness  in 
rotations. 

The  statistics  of  sorghums,  at  least  the  sweet  sorghums, 
are  not  very  satisfactory.  According  to  the  Thirteenth 
United  States  Census  the  total  acreage  of  sorghum  was  as 
follows :  — 

Sorghum  for  sirup 444,089  acres 

Broom-corn 326,102  acres 

Kafir  and  milo 1,635,153  acres 

2,405,344  acres 

Some  of  the  sorghum  is  also  reported  under  the  heading 
"  Coarse  forage,"  but  it  is  impossible  to  estimate  how 
much. 

According  to  the  Kansas  State  Board  of  Agriculture, 
there  was  grown  in  that  state  in  1910  acreage  as  follows : 
sorgo,  512,621;  milo,  100,700;  kafir,  636,201.  Of  the 
sorgo  the  product  of  only  12,879  acres  was  pressed  for 
sirup. 

315.  Culture.  — -  Sorghum  is  grown  for  forage  either  in 


SORGHUMS  267 

rows  sufficiently  wide  to  cultivate  with  horses,  or  less  com- 
monly, broadcasted  or  drilled  thickly  for  hay.  Sometimes 
it  is  planted  in  a  mixture  with  cowpeas,  soybeans  or  other 
legumes. 

Good  preparation  of  the  seed  bed  is  desirable,  especially 
to  secure  a  firm  seed  bed  and  freedom  from  weeds.  Sor- 
ghum seedlings  grow  slowly  at  first,  the  more  so  if  the 
weather  be  cool,  and  so  are  likely  to  be  injured  by  weeds  or 
even  destroyed  in  broadcasted  sowings. 

When  planted  in  rows  sorghum  is  cultivated  often 
enough  to  keep  down  weeds.  In  the  semi-arid  region 
frequent  cultivations  are  believed  to  conserve  the  soil 
moisture. 

Whether  broadcasted  or  sown  in  rows,  sorghum  can  be 
harrowed  until  about  6  inches  high  with  practically  no 
injury  to  the  young  plants.  Rows  24  to  30  inches  wide 
may  be  cultivated  with  a  weeder  till  2  feet  high. 

316.  Time  of  sowing.  —  Sorghum  should  not  be  sown 
until  the  soil  is  thoroughly  warm  in  the  spring,  and  usually 
a  little  later  than  corn.     Early  sowings  often  given  imper- 
fect stands.     Later  seedings  can  be  made  at  any  time  in  the 
summer  provided  there  is  likely  to  be  sufficient  moisture 
and  time  enough  to  mature  before  frost. 

317.  Seeding  in  rows.  —  Sorghums  may  be  sown  in 
cultivated  rows  in  widths  varying  from  18  inches  to  44 
inches.     Cultivation  with  horses  is  difficult,  however,  if 
the  rows  are  narrower  than  28  inches,  and  42  or  44  inches 
is  the  usual  distance  used.     The  thickness  of  the  seeding 
in  the  rows  may  also  be  varied.     Thick  seeding  will  pro- 
duce finer  stems  and  a  larger  proportion  of  leaves,  and  this 
is  therefore  desirable  where  moisture  is  ample.     In  dry 
regions,  however,  where  the  moisture  supply  may  be  very 
scanty,  thin  seedings  are  most  satisfactory  in  the  long  run, 


268        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 

even  if  the  yield  be  somewhat  reduced,  and  the  plants 
coarser. 

If  the  rows  be  3  feet  wide  and  the  plants  1  inch  apart 
in  the  rows,  an  acre  will  contain  174,240  plants.  Six 
pounds  of  seed  of  a  sweet  sorghum  would,  therefore,  be 
sufficient  if  they  all  grow.  Four  to  6  pounds  of  seed  to 
the  acre  is,  however,  commonly  used  in  the  drier  regions, 
and  in  humid  regions  up  to  8  to  10  pounds. 
.  In  the  semi-arid  regions  sorghums  are  usually  planted 
in  furrows  made  with  a  lister,  as  this  is  believed  to  make 
the  plant  more  firmly  rooted,  especially  as  the  later  cul- 
tivations throw  the  soil  about  the  base  of  the  stems.  At 
Chillicothe,  Texas,  however,  flat  planting  gave  better 
yields  in  average  seasons. 

318.  Seeding    broadcast.  —  Where    sorghum    is    sown 
broadcast  an  average  of  about  40  pounds  to  the  acre  is 
best.      Such  seedings  are  usually  confined  to  the  sweet 
sorghums  the  seeds  of  which  do  not  differ  greatly  in  size 
in  the  different  varieties.     This  amount  of  seed  if  drilled 
will  sow  1  seed  each  inch  in  7  inch  drill  rows.     In  drier 
regions  somewhat  less  seed  is  more  desirable,  but  in  the 
humid  regions  1  to  2  bushels  is  the  usual  rate  of  seeding. 

At  the  Iowa  Experiment  Station  but  slight  differences 
in  yield  were  obtained  when  sown  at  the  rates  of  40,  80  and 
100  pounds  an  acre,  excepting  that  in  the  thicker  seedings 
the  stalks  were  not  as  coarse. 

319.  Number  of  cuttings.  —  As  a  rule  sorghum  is  cut 
but  once  for  fodder.     This  is  all  that  is  possible  in  the 
Northern  States  or  in  the  semi-arid  regions  on  unirrigated 
land.     In  the  South,  however,  where  the  rainfall  is  ample 
or  where  irrigation  is  available,  two  or  three  cuttings  may 
be  secured  in  a  season,  new  shoots  developing  from  the 
stubble.      To   secure  a  better  second   crop  the  rows  or 


SORGHUMS  269 

broadcasted  stubble  are  sometimes  cultivated  after  the 
first  cutting  is  removed. 

320.  Yields  of  forage.  —  The  yields  of  forage  from  the 
sorghums  vary  greatly  and,  as  is  the  case  with  similar 
coarse  plants,  are  not  often  weighed.     Maximum  yields 
probably  reach  40  tons  of  green  and  about  10  of  dry  forage. 
Very  large  yields  can  be  obtained  by  growing  very  coarse 
varieties,  but  smaller  yields  of  less  coarse  fodder  are  more 
desirable.      In  general,  3  tons  an  acre  may  be  considered 
a  good  yield  and  6  tons  a  large  yield. 

321.  Seed.  —  The  seeds  of  the  sorghums  differ  greatly 
according  to  variety  in  size,  shape,  color  and  hardness. 
The  weight  to  the  bushel  will  vary  from  54  pounds  to  62 
pounds  per  bushel,  depending  upon  the  freedom  from  hulls 
and  the  variety.     The  legal  weight  to  the  bushel  is  30 
pounds  in  Iowa  and  Nebraska ;  42  pounds  in  Missouri  and 
Mississippi ;    50  pounds  in  Arkansas  and  Tennessee ;  56 
pounds  in  Kansas ;  57  pounds  in  Minnesota. 

According  to  the  last  census  (1909)  there  was  produced 
833,707  bushels  of  seed  on  72,497  acres.  Of  this  Kansas 
produced  565,522  bushels  on  53,706  acres.  Other  im- 
portant seed-producing  states  are  Nebraska,  Texas  and 
Oklahoma. 

The  number  of  seeds  in  one  pound  of  different  varieties 
is  as  follows :  Sumac,  35,000 ;  Orange,  23,500 ;  Amber, 
23,000. 

322.  Agricultural  varieties.  —  The  agricultural  varieties 
of  the  sorghums  important  for  forage  include  all  the  sorgos 
or  sweet  sorghums,  the  kafirs,  milo  and  feterita,  as  well  as 
Sudan-grass.     The  broom-corns,  the  kowliangs,  shallu  and 
many  of  the  Indian  and  African-grown  varieties  have 
dry,  pithy  stems  and  are  therefore  much  less  valuable 
for  forage. 


270        FORAGE  PLANTS   AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

The  principal  sorgos  are  Amber,  Orange,  Sumac,  Goose- 
neck, Honey  and  Planter;  there  are  four  important 
varieties  of  kafir,  two  of  milo  and  one  durra  (feterita) 
commonly  grown  for  forage. 

Amber.  —  Amber  was  the  first  sorgo  introduced  into 
America.  It  is  said  to  have  been  developed  in  Indiana 
from  the  Chinese  sorgo  brought  to  France  in  1851  from 
Tsungming  Island,  China.  Amber  sorgo  has  open,  usually 
pyramidal  panicles  with  the  lower  branches  drooping; 
glumes  black,  slightly  hairy,  shiny,  nearly  inclosing  the 
elliptical  reddish-yellow  grains.  It  will  mature  in  Ontario 
and  Minnesota. 

Red  Amber.  —  This  variety  was  introduced  in  1903  from 
Australia,  where  it  is  called  Early  Orange.  It  differs 
from  amber  in  the  glumes  being  dark  red  or  reddish- 
brown.  It  is  not  early  enough  to  use  north  of  Kansas 
and  Maryland. 

Orange.  —  Orange  sorgo  was  one  of  the  forms  introduced 
from  Natal  in  1857.  It  has  moderately  compact  heads,  5 
to  8  inches  long,  oblong,  cylindric  or  spreading  at  the  top ; 
glumes  reddish  to  black,  two-thirds  as  long  as  the  reddish 
yellow  grains,  which  become  paler  when  fully  ripe.  Usually 
it  is  two  weeks  later  than  Amber  and  about  one  week 
earlier  than  Sumac. 

Planter.  —  This  variety  is  much  grown  in  Australia 
under  the  name  Planter's  Friend  and  in  America  has  been 
called  Sourless  from  the  idea  that  the  juice  in  the  stems 
would  not  ferment  as  quickly  as  that  of  other  varieties. 
Its  origin  and  early  history  are  obscure,  but  forms  much 
like  it  came  from  South  Africa.  It  much  resembles 
Orange,  but  is  less  sweet  and  juicy.  The  heads  vary  in 
compactness  and  may  be  spreading  above ;  glumes  pale 
brown,  very  acute,  half  inclosing  the  straw-colored  grains. 


SORGHUMS  271 

Planter  is  not  considered  a  desirable  variety  under 
American  conditions. 

Sumac.  —  Sumac  sorgo,  also  known  as  Redtop  or  Red- 
head, was  introduced  from  Natal  in  1857.  Sumac  varies 
but  little  and  may  be  easily  distinguished  by  its  erect, 
cylindrical,  quite  dense  heads  6  to  9  inches  long,  some- 
times loose  at  the  top ;  glumes  dark  red  or  black,  hairy, 
much  shorter,  than  the  seeds  ;  grains  very  small,  obovate, 
brownish  red.  Sumac  is  too  late  to  mature  north  of  a 
line  from  northern  Virginia  to  southern  Kansas. 

Honey.  —  Honey  has  also  been  called  Japanese  seeded 
cane.  It  was  found  growing  in  Texas  in  1904,  but  its 
earlier  history  is  uncertain.  Stems  tall,  very  juicy, 
sweeter  than  any  other  variety  known ;  leaves  14  to  16 ; 
panicles  erect,  pyramidal,  very  loose  and  open,  9  to  11 
inches  long,  the  slender  branches  more  or  less  drooping; 
glumes  reddish,  nearly  smooth  and  about  equal  in  length 
to  the  dark  red-brown  grains  ;  late,  maturing  with  Sumac. 

This  variety  is  probably  the  best  of  all  in  its  ability 
to  remain  erect  until  maturity. 

Gooseneck.  —  This  is  also  known  as  "  Texas  Seeded  Rib- 
bon Cane."  It  has  been  known  since  1876  and  is  perhaps 
one  of  the  varieties  from  Natal.  Stems  very  tall  and  stout, 
12  to  14  feet  high,  very  sweet  and  juicy;  heads  ovoid, 
rather  dense,  5  to  9  inches  long,  3  to  5  inches  broad,  all 
recurved  or  at  least  inclined  at  maturity;  glumes  hairy, 
black,  the  lower  one  awned ;  grains  obovate,  reddish  yel- 
low, inclosed  by  the  glumes ;  later  than  Sumac  by  about 
one  week. 

Gooseneck  is  better  for  sirup  than  for  forage.  It  does 
not  lodge  much  in  spite  of  its  great  height. 

Kafir  or  Kafir  corn.  —  Kafirs  are  all  originally  from 
southeast  Africa,  whence  they  were  introduced  in  1876, 


272         FORAGE  PLANTS  ANJ)   THEIR   CULTURE 

but  were  not  much  grown  until  ten  years  afterwards. 
They  differ  from  other  grain  sorghums  in  having  the  stems 
quite  sweet,  being  intermediate  in  this  respect  between  the 
sweet  sorghums  and  the  pithy-stemmed  sorghums.  They 
are  characterized  by  stout,  short-jointed  stems,  numerous 
(12-18)  broad,  rather  stiff  leaves,  and  especially  by  the 
dense,  erect,  cylindrical  or  oblong  heads.  The  grains  are 
oval,  half  covered  by  the  short  glumes. 

The  most  important  variety  is  Blackhull  kafir  with 
heads  10  to  14  inches  long,  and  nearly  white  grains  with 
black  glumes.  Less  important  is  Red  kafir  with  longer, 
more  slender  heads,  12  to  18  inches  long  and  dark  red  grains 
with  yellowish  to  dark  gray  glumes.  Pink  kafir  recently 
introduced  from  South  Africa,  with  pink  grains,  is  otherwise 
intermediate  between  the  Blackhull  and  the  Red  varieties. 
White  kafir  with  white  glumes  and  grains  is  the  earliest 
variety  of  kafir,  but  its  heads  often  remain  inclosed  in  the 
upper  sheath. 

Feterita.  —  Feterita  or  Sudan  durra  is  an  erect-headed 
durra  introduced  in  1906.  It  is  much  cultivated  in  Sudan 
in  the  region  about  Khartum.  Feterita  has  rather  slender 
stems,  5  to  7  feet  high,  slightly  juicy  and  sweet  and  in- 
clined to'  produce  branches ;  heads  erect,  cylindrical, 
dense  but  not  so  compact  as  milo ;  grains  bluish  white, 
subglobose,  much  larger  than  those  of  milo  or  kafir ;  glumes 
black,  shiny,  densely  hirsute  on  margins  only  half  inclos- 
ing the  seeds ;  early,  maturing  about  one  week  before 
milo. 

Milo.  —  Milo  is  also  called  milo  maize  and  in  northern 
Texas  is  often  known  simply  as  maize.  It  was  first  grown 
in  South  Carolina  or  Georgia  between  1880  and  1885. 
With  scarcely  a  doubt  it  came  from  Africa,  but  nothing 
exactly  like  it  has  since  been  obtained  from  that  con- 


80EGHUMS  273 

tinent,  but  the  yellow  durra  or  durra  safra  of  Egypt  is 
more  nearly  like  milo  than  any  other  known  variety. 

Milo  is  characterized  by  having  stout,  rather  pithy 
stems ;  dense  ovate  heads,  nearly  always  recurved ;  glumes 
dark  colored ;  florets  awned ;  grains  pale  yellow.  A  white- 
seeded  form  has  also  been  developed  near  Chillicothe, 
Texas.  Milo  seems  to  be  entirely  immune  from  kernel 
smut  and  head  smut. 

323.  Seed-production.  —  The  seeding  habits  of  the 
sorghums  are  excellent  and  the  yield  an  acre  large.  The 
grain  varieties,  kafir,  milo  and  feterita,  commonly  yield 
25  bushels  an  acre  and  maximums  of  75  bushels  are 
reported  for  kafir,  46  bushels  for  milo  and  80  bushels 
for  feterita.  The  average  yield  an  acre  according  to  the 
United  States  Census  was  19.4  bushels  in  1899  and  19.8 
bushels  in  1909.  The  commercial  seed  of  these  grain 
sorghums  is  usually  excellent  both  in  purity  and  germina- 
tion. 

The  seed  yield  of  sorgos  is  much  less  definitely  known. 
The  census  of  1909  shows  a  total  production  of  833,707 
bushels  on  72,497  acres  or  11.6  bushels  an  acre.  Over 
70  per  cent  of  this  was  produced  in  Kansas,  the  other 
important  states  being  Nebraska,  Texas  and  Oklahoma. 
Of  the  total  amount  probably  over  one-half  was  Arnber 
sorgo.  Good  yields  range  from  20  to  40  bushels  an  acre. 

The  commercial  seed  of  the  sorgos  often  leaves  much  to 
be  desired,  as  there  is  usually  a  mixture  of  varieties  and 
seldom  a  pure  strain.  There  is,  however,  no  greater 
difficulty  in  growing  pure  seed  than  in  the  case  of  the  grain 
sorghums. 

The  seeds  of  most  sorghums  retain  their  viability  well 
for  several  years,  but  no  detailed  studies  have  been  re- 
corded. 


274         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 

324.  Utilization.  —  Sorghums  for  forage  may  be  utilized 
as  soilage,  hay,  fodder  or  silage,  and  with  due  precautions, 
may  be  pastured.     The  crop  should  be  harvested  before 
frost,  if  possible,  but  light  frosts  do  but  little  damage.     If 
the  crop  becomes  injured  by  frost,  the  harvesting  should 
be  completed  as  rapidly  as  possible. 

325.  Soilage.  —  Sorghum  is  an  excellent  crop  to  feed 
green,  and  is  probably  thus  used  to  a  greater  extent  than 
any  other  forage  crop  in  America.     For  this  purpose  it 
may  be  cut  at  any  time  after  it  is  2  or  3  feet  high.     It  is 
not  desirable  to  cut,  however,  until  it  heads,  as  both  the 
yield  and  the  quality  are  better  at  that  time.     The  second 
growth  is  more  rapid  if  it  be  cut  before  heading  than  after- 
wards, but  the  total  yield  is  probably  reduced  if  cut  either 
before  heading  or  after  the  dough   stage  of  the    seeds  is 
reached. 

In  growing  sorghum  for  soilage,  sowings  may  be  made 
at  intervals  of  about  15  days,  as  this  is  about  the  length 
of  time  that  a  sowing  will  afford  desirable  green  feed. 
Or  early  and  late  varieties  may  be  used.  The  average 
yield  of  green  forage  an  acre  may  conservatively  be  placed 
at  15  tons. 

326.  Fodder.  —  Sorghum   in   cultivated   rows    is   har- 
vested much  the  same  as  corn,  being  cut  either  with  a  row 
binder  or  with  a  corn  knife.      The  crop  is  commonly  cut 
for  this  purpose  when  the  seed  is  in  the  early  dough  stage. 

The  thick,  juicy  stems  cure  with  difficulty.  It  is  best, 
therefore,  to  begin  the  curing  by  having  the  stalks  in 
small  shocks,  and  to  combine  these  into  larger  ones  as  the 
curing  progresses.  The  large  shocks  are  put  under  cover 
when  dry  enough,  or  they  may  be  left  in  the  field  until 
used.  If  left  in  the  field,  they  should  be  capped  or  at 
least  tied  closely  at  the  top  so  as  to  shed  rain  water. 


SORGHUMS  275 

When  only  small. areas  are  harvested,  the  curing  may  be 
done  with  the  aid  of  a  pyramid. 

Sweet  sorghum  fodder,  if  left  in  the  field,  is  likely  to 
become  sour  after  about  three  months,  due  to  the  fer- 
mentation of  the  sugar  by  yeasts.  This  difficulty  is 
greatest  with  the  saccharine  sorghums  in  humid  climates, 
and  probably  in  nearly  direct  proportion  to  their  sugar 
content. 

327.  Hay.  —  Where  sorghum  is  sown  broadcasted  or 
in  close  drills,  it  is  usually  cut  for  hay  when  the  seeds  are 
in  the  early  dough  stage.     In  dry  regions  it  may  be  cut 
with  a  binder  and  allowed  to  cure  in  the  bundles.     In 
more  humid  localities,  methods  must  be  used  to  insure 
as  rapid  curing  as  possible,  as  the  rather  thick,  juicy  stems 
dry  out  but  slowly. 

328.  Silage.  —  Sorghum  has  long  been  used  as  silage 
and  the  results  are  nearly  as  satisfactory  as  corn.     Even 
in  the  semi-arid  regions  the  use  of  the  silo  has  become 
common  in  recent  years,   and  an  increasing  proportion 
of  the  sorghum  crop,  both  saccharine  and  grain  varieties, 
is  thus  preserved.     With  the  grain  sorghums  an  incidental 
advantage  is  secured  by  the  softening  of  the  seeds  during 
silage  fermentation,  so  that  practically  none  are  voided 
by  the  animal  undigested. 

For  preserving  as  silage,  sorghums  should  be  allowed 
to  become  fully  mature.  In  palatability  and  feeding 
value  sorghum  silage  has  proven  to  be  nearly  as  good  as 
corn  silage. 

329.  Sorghum  and  legume  mixtures.  —  A  mixture  com- 
posed of  sorghum  and  cowpeas  for  hay  has  long  been  used. 
The   advantages   of   the   mixture   are  that  the  sorghum 
supports  the  cowpeas  and  in  curing  keeps  the  leaves  from 
becoming    matted.     The    yield    is    probably    somewhat 


276        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

decreased,  but  the  mixed  hay  is  better  than  sorghum 
alone.  Amber  sorgo  is  generally  used  in  such  mixtures, 
but  in  Texas,  Sumac  is  preferable  because  it  is  later.  Any 
of  the  medium  late  cowpeas  may  be  employed,  such  as 
Whippoorwill,  Brabham  and  Unknown. 

Where  moisture  is  ample,  the  seeding  may  consist  of 
|  to  |  bushel  per  acre  of  sorghum  and  1  bushel  of  cowpeas. 

When  planted  in  rows  under  dry-land  conditions, 
the  rate  of  planting  needs  to  be  regulated  in  accordance 
with  the  probable  amount  of  moisture.  Theoretically 
there  should  be  one  plant  of  cowpea  to  tw^o  of  sorghum. 
At  Chillicothe,  Texas,  6  pounds  of  Whippoorwill  cowpeas 
to  1  pound  of  Amber  sorghum  proved  very  satisfactory. 

Other  legumes  that  may  be  used  in  place  of  cowpeas 
are  soybean,  bonavist  beans  and  kulthi  beans. 

330.  Pasture  value.  —  Sorghum  may  be  used  as  pas- 
turage, but  on  account  of  the  danger  of  poisoning  has  never 
been  much  employed  for  this  purpose  alone. 

It  is  a  common  practice,  however,  to  turn  live  stock 
into  a  field  of  sorghum  from  which  the  heads  have  been 
removed  for  seed,  and  when  thus  utilized  there  have  been 
no  reports  of  deaths  resulting. 

The  principal  danger  from  sorghum  seems  to  be  when 
the  young  second  growth  from  the  stubble  is  pastured. 

331.  Poisoning.  —  That  green  sorghums  are  poisonous 
under  certain  circumstances  has  long  been  known.     The 
cause  is  now  generally  admitted  to  be  due  to  prussic  acid, 
which  under  some  conditions  is  formed  in  the  leaves  both 
of  young  and  old  plants,  but  has  not  been  found  in  the 
roots  or  seeds.     The  conditions  under  which  prussic  acid 
is  formed  is  not  clearly  understood,  but  it  seems  more 
likely  to  occur  when  for  any  reason  the  growth  of  the  plant 
has  been  checked.     As  the  same  phenomenon  occurs  in 


SORGHUMS  277 

Lima  beans,  Hyacinth  beans,  Guinea-grass  and  other 
plants,  it  is  quite  certainly  not  due  to  a  parasite.  Poison- 
ing has  been  most  frequently  reported  when  cattle  were 
pastured  on  second-growth  sorghum,  and  on  account  of 
the  danger  this  is  rarely  advisable.  A  few  cases  of 
poisoning  by  Johnson-grass  are  also  recorded. 

332.  Diseases.  —  Three   diseases    cause   more   or   less 
damage  to  the  sorghums ;  namely,  kernel  smut  (Sphace- 
lotheca  sorghi) ;    head  smut  (Sphacelotheca  reiliana) ;  and 
Red  spot  or  Sorghum  blight  (Bacillus  sorghi). 

Kernel  smut  affects  only  the  individual  grains,  and  all 
or  nearly  all  the  seeds  in  a  head  are  destroyed,  but  the 
appearance  of  the  head  is  but  slightly  changed.  Kernel 
smut  may  be  controlled  by  treating  the  seed  with  formalin 
or  with  hot  water. 

Head  smut  destroys  the  entire  head,  which,  as  it  emerges 
from  the  sheath,  is  practically  a  mass  of  smut  spores 
covered  with  a  whitish  membrane.  No  satisfactory 
treatment  for  this  smut  has  yet  been  found. 

Red  spot  or  blight  causes  characteristic  red  spots  to 
appear  on  the  leaves  and  stems.  When  abundant  the 
leaves  die  prematurely.  All  varieties  of  sorghum  and 
Johnson-grass  are  subject  to  the  disease,  but  by  selection 
strains  that  show  a  high  degree  of  resistance  may  be  secured. 

333.  Insect  pests.  —  Only  a  few  insects  cause  serious 
damage    to    sorghums.      The    most    important    are    the 
sorghum  midge,  the  chinch-bug,  the  corn-worm  and  the 
fall  army- worm. 

Sorghum  midge  (Diplosis  sorghicola).  —  It  has  long  been 
known  that  the  sorghums  seldom  produced  good  seed 
crops  in  southern  Texas.  The  cause  of  this  is  the  sorghum 
midge,  as  first  demonstrated  by  C.  R.  Ball  in  1907.  This 
little  fly  lays  its  eggs  in  the  flower  when  in  bloom  and 


278        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR    CULTURE 

the  young  larva  feeds  on  the  juices  of  the  developing  ovary, 
preventing  the  formation  of  the  seed.  If  a  head  of 
sorghum  be  bagged  before  it  blooms  so  as  to  exclude  the 
insect  all  of  the  seeds  may  develop.  The  insect  also  lives 
in  Setaria  glauca,  Tridens  flava  (Sieglingia  seslerioides) 
and  probably  other  grasses.  Its  occurrence  is  probably 
general  in  the  Southern  States  over  about  the  same  area 
as  cotton. 

Corn-worm  ( Helioihis  armiger) .  —  The  larva  of  the  corn- 
worm  is  often  found  in  the  heads  of  sorghum,  but  mostly 
in  those  which  are  rather  dense. 

Chinch-bug  (Blissus  leucopterus). —  Chinch-bugs,  when 
abundant,  do  serious  damage  to  young  sorghum  plants. 

Fall  army-worm  (Laphygma  frugiperda). —  The  fall 
army-worm,  when  abundant,  may  do  serious  damage  to 
sorghums.  The  larvae  usually  feed  in  the  young  leaves 
while  still  coiled,  perforating  them  so  that  they  may  break 
off  after  they  have  expanded.  Sometimes  the  larvae 
tunnel  into  the  young  stem  below  the  developing  head, 
which  may  later  break  where  weakened. 

Sorghum  aphis  (Sipha  flava).  —  This  plant  louse  is 
sometimes  abundant,  but  rarely  does  much  damage. 

334.  Sorghum  improvement.  —  The  improvement  of 
sorghums  by  breeding  presents  no  particular  difficulties, 
but  care  is  necessary  to  keep  any  strain  pure.  Sorghum, 
like  corn,  is  wind  pollinated,  and  different  varieties  grown 
close  together  cross  freely.  Uncontaminated  seed  can 
easily  be  obtained  by  bagging  the  heads  before  the  stigmas 
are  exposed.  After  the  seeds  have  set,  the  bags  should 
be  opened  to  prevent  molding.  Natural  crosses  may  be 
found  in  almost  any  field  of  sorghum.  Heterozygote 
plants  are  often  prominent  from  the  fact  that  they  grow 
much  taller  than  the  other  plants.  Artificial  crosses  are 


SORGHUMS  279 

not  particularly  difficult  to  make,  but  the  blossoms  must 
be  emasculated  before  the  anthers  open. 

Selections  can  easily  be  compared  by  the  hea"d-to-row 
method;  that  is,  planting  each  row  from  a  single  head, 
preferably  in  duplicate  so  as  to  permit  of  careful  compari- 
sons. 

Among  the  sweet  sorghums,  selections  should  be  for 
leanness,  disease  resistance,  sweetness,  juiciness  and 
erectness,  as  well  as  yield.  Yield,  indeed,  is  a  secondary 
matter,  as  otherwise  the  tallest  and  coarsest  varieties 
would  be  preferred. 

Among  grain-producing  sorghums  the  yield  of  seed  is 
the  paramount  consideration,  but  in  dual-purpose  sor- 
ghums, like  milo,  kafir  and  feterita,  the  other  points 
should  be  considered. 

When  a  desirable  strain  is  determined  upon,  the  heads 
in  the  row  test  should  be  bagged,  and  from  the  seed  thus 
secured,  a  field  isolated  from  other  varieties  should  be 
planted.  As  soon  as  a  stock  of  seed  is  secured,  the  variety 
may  be  kept  practically  pure  by  saving  the  seed  only  from 
the  central  portions  of  a  field  and  by  promptly  removing 
any  rogues  that  may  appear. 

SUDAN-GRASS  (Audropogon  sorghum  var.) 

335.  Description.  —  Sudan-grass  is  probably  native 
to  Egypt,  where  it  is  cultivated  under  the  name  "  garawi," 
but  it  may  have  originated  farther  south  in  Africa.  It 
was  first  introduced  into  the  United  States  in  1909.  There 
are  strong  reasons  for  believing  this  plant  to  be  the  wild 
original  form  of  the  cultivated  sorghums,  with  which  it 
spontaneously  crosses  wherever  the  two  are  planted  near 
each  other. 

It   is   a  tall    annual    grass,   growing  under  favorable 


280        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 

conditions  to  a  height  of  6  to  10  feet,  but  when  broad- 
casted thickly  it  grows  only  4  to  5  feet  high.  The  stems 
are  fine,  the  largest  stalks  seldom  larger  than  a  lead  pencil. 
Where  the  plants  are  scattered  they  stool  abundantly, 
as  many  as  20  to  100  stalks  coming  from  a  single  root. 
In  general  appearance  Sudan-grass  is  very  much  like 
Johnson-grass,  but  the  two  are  entirely  distinct,  for 
Sudan-grass  lacks  rootstocks  and,  therefore,  never  be- 
comes troublesome  as  a  weed.  The  stems  are  leafy, 
perfectly  erect  and  seldom  lodging.  The  sugar  content 
is  small,  but  enough  to  give  a  decided  sweetish  taste. 
The  panicle  is  loose  and  open,  pyramidal  in  form  and.  6 
to  18  inches  long. 

336.  Adaptations.  —  Sudan-grass    is    adapted    to    the 
same  general  conditions  as  the  sorghums,  but  it  ripens 
earlier  than  any  sorghum,  and  will  probably  mature  as 
far  north  as  latitude  49°.     It  has  been  grown  with  marked 
success  in  the  semi-arid  region  from  South   Dakota  to 
Texas,  where  it  is  quite  as  drought  resistant  as  any  other 
sorghum.     It    grows    equally    well    through    the    humid 
regions  and  has  given  splendid  results  from  Maryland  to. 
Louisiana.     Along  the  Gulf  Coast  and  in  Florida,  however, 
it  has  not  succeeded  very  well,  probably  on  account  of 
the  great  humidity.     Under  irrigation  it  seems  destined 
to  become  important,  judged  from  the  results  secured  in 
Colorado,  Arizona  and  California. 

337.  Culture.  —  Sudan-grass  may  be  sown  broadcast, 
drilled  or  in  cultivated  rows.     Where  there  is  sufficient 
moisture,  broadcasting  or  drilling  is  preferable ;  otherwise 
the  grass  is  likely  to  be  coarse.     In  seeding  this  way  three 
pecks  of  seed  to  the  acre  should  be  used. 

Under  conditions  of  light  rainfall  Sudan-grass  is  prob- 
ably best   sown    in    cultivated    rows,   though    excellent 


SORGHUMS  281 

results  have  been  secured  in  dry  regions  from  broad- 
casting. In  rows  36  inches  wide,  3  pounds  of  seed  to  the 
acre  are  sufficient,  even  with  rather  thick  seeding,  which 
is  recommended  when  grown  for  hay.  For  seed-pro- 
duction much  thinner  seeding  has  given  excellent  results. 
It  is  sometimes  practicable  in  humid  regions  to  sow  in 
18-inch  rows  and  cultivate.  This  is  especially  desirable 
where  the  land  is  very  weedy.  The  grass  grown  under 
such  conditions  does  not  become  too  coarse,  and  further- 
more, the  dense  shade  kills  out  the  weeds.  Five  pounds 
of  seed  to  the  acre  should  be  used  when  thus  sown.  For 
drilling  or  broadcasting  15  to  25  pounds  of  seed  per  acre, 
depending  on  rainfall,  should  be  used.  The  seed  should 
not  be  sown  until  the  ground  is  warm,  that  is,  about  the 
time  for  planting  corn.  Some  experiments  indicate  that 
Sudan-grass  may  be  seeded  considerably  earlier,  but 
further  experiments  are  needed  before  this  can  be  stated 
definitely.  The  young  plants  will  withstand  slight  frosts 
without  injury. 

338.  Utilization.  —  Sudan-grass  may  be  compared  to 
the  millets  in  that  it  makes  a  large  crop  of  hay  in  a  short 
season  of  warm  weather.     It  is  preferable  to  the  millets, 
however,  in  that  the  hay  is  much  superior  and  can  be  fed 
to  all  kinds  of  live  stock  without  injury  to  them.     While 
it  is  closely  related  to  the  cultivated  sorghums,  it  has  much 
finer  stems,  enabling  it  to  be  cured  into  hay  readily  and 
thus  filling  a  somewhat  different  function  on  the  farm. 

It  is  probable  that  the  same  precautions  will  need  to  be 
taken  in  pasturing  Sudan-grass  aftermath  as  with  the 
sorghums. 

339.  Hay.  —  Sudan-grass  may  be  cut   only  once  in  a 
season  at  the  northern  limit  of  its  growth,  but  southward 
may  be  cut  two,  three  or  even  four  times,  depending  on 


282        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 

the  length  of  the  season  and  moisture  conditions,  and  the 
time  of  cutting.  Sudan-grass  is  probably  best  cut  when 
in  full  bloom,  and  early  cutting  is  advisable  where  two  or 
more  cuttings  are  expected.  There  is  little  if  any  deteri- 
oration, however,  if  the  grass  be  allowed  to  stand  longer, 
as  the  later  culms  of  the  same  stool  continue  to  appear 
over  a  considerable  period. 

The  grass  can  be  cut  with  a  mower,  but  more  conven- 
iently with  a  binder,  especially  in  dry  regions,  as  the  hay 
cures  very  readily  in  bundles. 

At  Chillicothe,  Texas,  4  cuttings  were  obtained  in  1912 
from  a  broadcasted  tenth-acre  plot,  the  yield  being  at 
the  rate  of  8800  pounds  of  hay  per  acre.  At  Arlington 
Farm,  Virginia,  single  cuttings  yielded  at  the  rate  of  2.8 
tons  and  3.5  tons  per  acre. 

340.  Hay  mixtures.  —  Sudan-grass  is  well  adapted  for 
growing  in  mixtures  with  cowpeas  and  soybeans  or  both, 
as  they  mature  well  together  and  the  stems  of  the  Sudan- 
grass  prevent  the  leaves  of  the  legumes  from  matting 
together  in  curing.     At  Arlington  Farm,  Virginia,  a  plat 
of  Sudan-grass  and  Black  cowpeas  yielded  at  the  rate  of 
4.6  tons  an  acre,  about  one-fourth  being  cowpeas,  while 
Johnson-grass  and  Black  cowpeas  yielded  but  2.8  tons. 

A  similar  mixture  of  Sudan-grass  and  Arlington  soy- 
beans, a  twining  variety,  yielded  at  the  rate  of  4.4  tons 
per  acre,  about  one-fourth  of  the  material  being  the 
legume. 

In  these  trials,  Sudan-grass  was  seeded  at  the  rate  of 
20  pounds,  and  the  cowpeas  and  soybeans  30  pounds  an 
acre. 

341.  Chemical  analysis.  —  As  far  as  chemical  analyses 
can  determine,  Sudan-grass  does  not  vary  greatly  in  com- 
position from  before  heading  until  the  seed  is  ripe.      As 


SORGHUMS 


283 


the  leaves  dry  more  or  less  after  full  bloom,  it  is  probably 
best  cut  at  that  time.  In  the  following  analyses,  perhaps 
the  most  important  point  shown  is  the  close  comparison 
of  the  mature  plant  with  that  cut  in  bloom  :  — • 


CUT  AUG.  7 

CUT 

SUBSTANCE 

SEPT.  1, 

BEFORE 

HEADING 

OCT.  1, 
SEED  WAS 

FULLY 

MATURE 

Before 
Heading 

Heads 
just  Ap- 
pearing 

Just  be- 
ginning to 
Bloom 

In  Full 
Bloom 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Moisture     .     . 

4.13 

3.54 

3.46 

3.51 

4.82 

4.38 

Ash    .... 

6.61 

5.55 

5.02 

5.64 

7.12 

5.59 

Ether  extract 

1.72 

1.39 

1.23 

1.27 

1.49 

1.48 

Protein 

7.75 

6.06 

5.16 

4.66 

5.63 

4.19 

Crude  fiber 

30.68 

31.94 

33.23 

35.62 

34.30 

34.44 

Pentosans 

21.82 

24.01 

24.70 

24.51 

23.38 

26.70 

Undetermined 

27.29 

27.51 

27.20 

24.79 

23.26 

26.70 

342.  Seed-production.  —  Sudan-grass  yields  excellent 
crops  of  seed,  especially  if  planted  in  cultivated  rows. 
At  Arlington  Farm,  Virginia,  a  yield  of  12.8  bushels  an 
acre  was  obtained  when  planted  in  18-inch  rows,  while 
but  3.7  bushels  were  secured  from  broadcasted  plats.  At 
Chillicothe,  Texas,  under  farm  conditions  a  yield  of  356 
pounds  an  acre  was  secured  from  36-inch  rows,  and  on 
another  farm  642  pounds  from  42-inch  rows.  At  the  South 
Dakota  Experiment  Station  small  plots  have  yielded  at  the 
rate  of  1000  to  1500  pounds  an  acre.  The  seed  weighs 
32  to  44  pounds  a  bushel. 

Seeol  for  commercial  purposes  should  be  grown  on  land 
not  infested  with  Johnson-grass,  as  the  seeds  of  the  two 
are  distinguishable  only  with  difficulty.  Where  Johnson- 
grass  is  abundant,  Sudan-grass  for  seed  should  be  grown 


284        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 

only  in  cultivated  rows,  taking  great  care  to  hoe  out  any 
Johnson-grass  that  may  appear  in  the  field. 

Sudan-grass  crosses  very  readily  with  all  of  the  culti- 
vated varieties  of  sorghum,  so  that  when  it  is  grown  near 
any  such  variety,  more  or  less  numerous  hybrid  plants  will 
appear  in  the  progeny.  These  hybrids  do  no  harm  in  the 
fields  intended  for  hay,  but  where  a  crop  is  to  be  harvested 
for  seed  the  hybrid  plants  should  be  rogued  out.  This 
should  be  done  preferably  as  soon  as  the  hybrids  appear 
in  bloom,  so  as  to  prevent  further  crossing  in  the  field,  but 
in  any  event  it  should  be  done  before  the  Sudan-grass  seed 
is  harvested. 


CHAPTER   XIV 
MILLETS  AND  OTHER  ANNUAL  GRASSES 

THE  millets  furnish  another  example  of  a  crop  utilized 
in  the  Old  World  for  human  food,  but  in  America  grown 
only  for  forage.  They  are  important  mainly  as  short-sea- 
son summer  catch-crops,  but  their  culture  is  diminishing 
steadily.  As  hay  producers  they  are  far  less  important 
than  the  small  cereals,  namely,  oats,  barley,  wheat  and 
rye. 

The  term  millet  has  been  used  agriculturally  with  a 
wide  meaning,  having  been  applied  to  about  10  species 
of  grasses  belonging  to  the  genera  Setaria  or  Chcetochloa, 
Panicum,  Echinochloa,  Pennisetum  and  sometimes  others, 
including  Paspalum.  The  sorghums,  too,  have  fre- 
quently been  called  "  giant  millets."  All  the  "  millets  " 
are  rapid-growing  summer  annuals. 

343.    The  principal  millets  are  the  following  :  — 

Foxtail  millet  (Setaria  italica),  including  the  varieties 
known  as  Common,  German,  Italian,  Hungarian,  Siberian 
and  many  others.  In  Europe  and  America  they  are  used 
wholly  as  forage,  but  in  other  countries  have  been  grown 
for  human  food.  * 

Broom-corn  millet,  Hog  Millet  or  Proso  (Panicum 
miliaceum),  cultivated  in  Russia  and  other  countries  as 
human  food  and  now  grown  to  a  considerable  extent  in 
America,  mainly  as  a  cereal  crop,  though  sometimes  cut 

285 


236        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR    CULTURE 

for  hay.  This  is  the  "  Common  millet  "  of  Europe,  the 
M ilium  of  the  Romans '  from  which  the  name  millet  is 
derived. 

Japanese  barnyard  millet  (Echinochloa  frumentacea) .  — 
This  is  also  known  as  Sanwa  millet  and  Billion-dollar  grass. 
In  America  it  is  grown  purely  as  a  forage  crop,  but  in 
Japan  and  India  the  grain  is  used  as  a  cheap  human  food. 
The  very  closely  related  Echinochloa  crus-galli  is  the 
common  Barnyard  millet. 

Ragi  or  finger  millet  (Eleusine  coracana)  is  much  grown 
in  India  as  a  cereal,  but  has  never  attained  favor  in 
America. 

Pearl  or  cat-tail  millet  (Pennisetum  glaucum)  is  as  tall 
and  coarse  as  the  sorghums  and  is  extensively  grown  in 
India  and  Africa  as  human  food.  In  the  United  States  it 
is  sparingly  grown  as  forage  and  often  called  Penicillaria. 

The  fruit  of  the  true  millets,  Panicum,  Setaria  and 
Echinochloa,  differs  from  that  of  nearly  all  other  grasses 
in  having  the  grain  inclosed  in  a  firm  box  composed  of  the 
firmly  interlocked  lemma  and  palea.  This  peculiar  fruit 
deserves  a  distinct  name  and  for  it  the  name  caryodst  — 
from  the  Greek  words  meaning  grain  and  box  —  seems 
appropriate. 

344.  Foxtail  millet  (Setaria  italica).  —  There  is  general 
agreement  among   botanists  that  the   cultivated   foxtail 
millets  have  been  derived  from  the  green  foxtail  (Setaria 
viridis),  now  a  cosmopolitan  weedy  grass,  especially  in  the 
tropics  and  warmer  portion  of  the  temperate  zone.     Green 
foxtaiHs  native  in  temperate  Eurasia  and  botanists  have 
distinguished  about  8  varieties,  largely  based  on  the  rel- 
ative length  of  the  awns. 

345.  Agricultural  history.  —  Foxtail  millet  is  a  plant 
of  very  ancient  cultivation.       It  is  probably  a  native  to 


MILLETS  AND   OTHER  ANNUAL   GRASSES       287 


southern  Asia  and  with  little  doubt  its  cultivation  began 
in  that  region.  According  to  Bretschneider  it  was  men- 
tioned in  connection  with  religious  ceremonies  in  Chinese 
records  about  2700  B.C.  Its  cultivation  is  also  very  ancient 
in  India  and  it  had 
early  spread  west  to 
Switzerland  as  its 
seeds  there  occur  in 
the  remains  of  the 
lake  dwellers  of  the 
stone  age. 

346.  Adaptations. 
—  The  foxtail  millets 
are  very  rapid-grow- 
ing, erect  annuals, 
which  delight  in  great 
summer  heat.  In  gen- 
eral they  require  the 
same  climatic  condi- 
tions as  sorghum,  but 
as  they  mature  in  a 
shorter  time,  are 
adapted  to  regions 
where  sorghums  will 
not  develop  suffi- 
ciently. They  are 
quite  as  drought  re- 
sistant as  the  sor- 
ghums and  are  im- 
portant in  much  the  same  areas,  but  as  the  sorghum  will 
produce  greater  yields  9f  better  forage  the  foxtail  millets 
are  now  used  mainly  as  catch-crops  when  the  time  is 
too  short  for  other  crops  to  mature. 


FIG.  29.  —  Foxtail  millet  (Setaria  italica). 
a  and  b,  dorsal  and  ventral  views  of  a 
spikelet ;  c,  lemma. 


288         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 

Millet  bears  the  reputation  of  being  "  hard  on  the  land  " 
—  that  is,  reducing  the  yield  of  subsequent  crops  —  but 
this  is  probably  no  more  the  case  than  with  any  similar 
crop  that  produces  equal  yields. 

347.  Importance.  —  The   foxtail   millets    are   still   im- 
portant as  cereals  for  human  food  in  China,  India  and 
other  Asiatic  countries.     In  mountainous  regions  of  North 
Asia  they  are  cultivated  by  many  wild  or  half  savage 
tribes. 

In  Europe  the  variety  known  as  Hungarian  millet  or 
Mohar  is  extensively  cultivated  for  forage  on  sandy  lands 
in  Austria,  Italy  and  the  Balkan  region. 

In  America  the  foxtail  millets  are  grown  wholly  for 
forage,  their  culture  being  most  important  in  the  semi- 
arid  regions,  but  by  no  means  insignificant  in  humid 
areas. 

The  area  planted  in  the  United  States  in  1909  was 
1,117,769  acres,  yielding  1,546,533  tons,  an  average  of 
1.33  tons  an  acre.  The  acreage  decreased  about  one- 
third  between  1899  and  1909.  The  states  where  millet 
is  most  important  are  Kansas,  Missouri,  Nebraska,  Texas 
and  North  Dakota.  Some,  however,  is  grown  in  every 
state  of  the  Union. 

348.  The    agricultural   varieties   of   foxtail   millet    are 
very  numerous  and  many  of  them  have  been  given  two 
or  more  names,  which  unfortunately  have  become  vari- 
ously used  by  different  seedsmen.     The  problem  of  deter- 
mining the  original  or  proper  application  of  each  name  is 
very  involved,  and  it  is  very  doubtful  if  this  can  now  be 
done    satisfactorily.     The    most    prominent    commercial 
varieties  now  used  in  the  United^  States  and  Canada  are 
the  following :  — 

Common.  —  This  is  the  best  known  and  perhaps  the 


MILLETS  AND   OTHER   ANNUAL    GRASSES        289 

most  widely  grown  variety.  It  is  fine-stemmed  and  leafy, 
with  a  small  cylindrical  head,  compact  except  near  the 
base,  and  numerous  yellow  fruits.  It  has  a  short  season 
of  growth  and  produces  a  fair  yield  of  good  quality  hay. 
The  California  and  the  Gold  Mine  are  heavy-yielding 
strains  of  common  millet. 

Other  names  that  belong  here,  in  the  main  at  least, 
are  Small  millet,  Dakota  millet,  Early  Harvest  millet, 
Missouri  millet  and  American  millet.  This  variety  has 
long  been  cultivated  in  the  United  States,  but  its  early 
history  is  obscure. 

German.  —  This  variety  is  coarser  than  the  common, 
with  broad  leaves  and  a  distinctly  lobed,  much  larger  and 
somewhat  looser  head.  The  individual  fruits  are  yellow 
like  the  common,  but  smaller  and  less  flattened.  The 
season  of  growth  is  fully  two  weeks  longer,  and  the  hay 
yield  is  larger  but  not  quite  so  good  in  quality. 

The  Golden  Wonder  is  a  selected  type  of  the  German 
in  which  the  head  is  distinctly  lobed  but  more  compact, 
longer  and  more  slender.  It  makes  good  yields  of  both 
forage  and  seed. 

Other  names  that  have  been  applied  to  German  millet 
are  Southern  millet,  Mammoth  millet,  Golden  millet  and 
Bengal-grass.  German  millet  was  introduced  into  the 
United  States  before  1870,  at  which  time  it  was  well 
known  in  Tennessee.  It  has  always  been  the  most  im- 
portant millet  in  the  South.  Owing  to  its  coarser  habit 
it  yields  more  per  acre  than  other  varieties.  It  is,  however, 
not  so  resistant  to  severe  drought.  The  original  source 
of  German  millet  is  doubtful,  probably  India,  but  its 
introduction  into  Tennessee  was  from  France. 

The  Golden  Wonder  variety  is  said  by  Crozier  to 
have  originated  in  Michigan  in  1884,  and  its  introducers 


290        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

claim  it  is  a  cross  between  German  and  Hungarian 
millets. 

Hungarian.  —  This  variety  possesses  a  small,  compact 
head  with  seeds  much  the  same  shape  as  those  of  common 
millet.  The  color  of  the  fruits  is  mixed,  some  being  yellow, 
others  black  or  very  dark  purple,  both  colors  being  found 
in  one  head.  The  season  of  maturity  is  intermediate 
between  the  common  and  German,  but  the  yield  is  practi- 
cally the  same  as  the  common,  except  under  dry  climatic 
conditions,  when  it  is  apt  to  be  less.  It  is  better  suited 
to  the  humid  than  to  semi-arid  conditions,  but  is  sometimes 
objectionable  on  account  of  its  tendency  to  volunteer. 

Hungarian  millet  is  commonly  called  Hungarian-grass. 
It  is  the  German  millet  of  Europe,  but  not  that  so-called 
in  America.  It  was  introduced  into  the  United  States  as 
early  as  1830  and  probably  much  earlier,  but  did  not 
become  prominent  until  after  the  seed  had  been  distrib- 
uted by  the  Patent  Office  in  1854. 

Siberian.  —  This  variety  was  introduced  from  Russia 
about  1896.  It  is  very  similar  to  common  millet,  except 
that  it  has  orange-colored  fruits.  The  season  of  growth 
is  a  few  days  longer  than  the  common  and  the  yield 
slightly  larger,  especially  in  the  semi-arid  districts. 

Another  strain  of  it,  called  the  Kursk,  was  introduced 
by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture  in  1899  from 
Kursk  Province,  Russia,  and  has  since  been  improved  by 
selection.  This  is  the  best  millet  for  the  semi-arid  regions 
from  Kansas  and  Colorado  northwards. 

Still  other  varieties  of  foxtail  millets  occur  in  Japan, 
Korea  and  Manchuria,  but  none  of  these  have  attained 
a  place  in  American  agriculture. 

349.  Culture.  —  Foxtail  millets  are  mostly  sown  broad- 
cast or  drilled  on  specially  prepared  ground,  but  in  the 


MILLETS  AND   OTHER  ANNUAL   GRASSES      291 

semi-arid  regions  row  culture  is  sometimes  used,  especially 
with  the  larger  varieties  like  German  millet.  A  well- 
prepared,  firm  seed  bed  is  best,  but  sometimes  millets  are 
sown,  with  very  little  soil  preparation,  as  on  disked  corn 
stubble. 

The  seed  should  not  be  sown  until  the  ground  is  warm, 
not  earlier  as  a  rule  than  two  or  three  weeks  after  the  usual 
time  for  planting  corn.  From  this  time  on,  millet  may 
be  sown  at  any  time  in  summer  if  there  is  sufficient  mois- 
ture and  time  enough  before  frost  to  mature.  The  least 
touch  of  frost  is  fatal  to  millet.  Under  the  most  favorable 
circumstances  a  crop  of  millet  may  be  cut  in  40  to  50  days 
after  seeding.  Towards  the  end  of  the  season  from  60 
to  90  days  must  be  allowed. 

350.  Seeding.  —  The  rate  of  seeding  recommended  by 
different  authorities  ranges  from  2  to  4  pecks  to  the  acre. 
Crozier  on  the  basis  of  trials  at  the  Michigan  Experiment 
Station  concludes  that  2  pecks  is  the  best  for  Hungarian 
and  common  millets  on  ordinary  soils. 

For  seed-production,  however,  thin  seedings  are  best 
and  1  peck  to  the  acre  is  usually  recommended.  Under 
semi-arid  conditions  millets  for  seed-production  are  some- 
times grown  in  cultivated  rows. 

At  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College  three  millets  were 
sown  at  six  different  dates  for  five  years.  Japanese 
broom-corn  millet  yielded  best  when  sown  June  1 ; 
Japanese  barnyard  millet,  when  sown  June  16 ;  and  Hun- 
garian millet  when  sown  July  1. 

351.  Hay.  —  Millet  should  be  cut  for  hay  just  after 
blooming,  but  for  cattle  and  sheep  it  may  be  left  until  the 
seed  are  in  the  late  milk  stage  of  development. 

The  quality  of  hay  produced  is  rather  inferior,  especially 
if  allowed  to  become  too  ripe  before  it  is  cut.  No  danger 


292        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR    CULTURE 

is  experienced  in  feeding  it  to  either  cattle  or  sheep,  but 
instances  of  unfavorable  results  when  fed  to  horses  are 
numerous.  Hay  intended  for  feeding  horses  should  be  cut 
before  the  seed  has  formed ;  such  hay  is  more  palatable 
and  is  not  as  dangerous. 

352.  Feeding  value.  — •  Armsby,  on  the  basis  of  calori- 
metric  experiments,  finds  that  Hungarian  millet  hay  is 
superior  to  red  clover,  alfalfa,  cowpea  or  timothy  hay  for 
beef  production  by  cattle.     This  finding  gives  a  much 
higher  value  to  Hungarian  hay  than  has  heretofore  been 
supposed. 

At  the  Connecticut  (Storrs)  Experiment  Station,  how- 
ever, Hungarian  millet  proved  inferior  to  red  clover 
•when  fed  to  dairy  cows  :  — 

"  In  these  experiments  when  clover  was  fed,  the  amounts 
of  milk  and  butter  were  considerably  increased  and  the 
percentages  of  fat  were  higher  than  during  the  test  with 
Hungarian-grass  just  before  and  after  those  with  clover. 
The  average  product  from  four  cows  during  the  first 
series  of  clover  tests  (August  10,  14  and  18)  of  1891  was 
281  pounds  of  milk  and  15.6  pounds  of  butter,  and  the 
average  percentage  of  fat  was  5.3  per  cent ;  while  for 
the  test  with  Hungarian-grass  (August  3  and  27)  the 
average  quantity  of  milk  was  249  pounds,  and  of  butter 
12.9  pounds,  and  the  average  percentage  of  fat  5  per 
cent." 

353.  Silage  from  foxtail  millet.  —  Millet  has  sometimes 
been  tried  as  silage,  but  is  not  well  adapted  for  this  purpose. 
At  the  Michigan  Experiment  Station  millet  preserved  in 
the  silo  was  dry  and  fluffy  when  removed  and  much  like 
hay.     It  had  a  pleasant  odor,  however,  and  was  readily 
eaten  by  cows. 

At  the  Vermont  Experiment  Station  two  cows  fed  with 


MILLETS  AND   OTHER  ANNUAL   GRASSES      293 

Hungarian  millet  silage  after  hay  showed  a  slight  im- 
provement in  milk  production.  One  cow  that  had  been 
fed  on  corn  silage  lost  in  quantity  and  quality  of  milk 
when  changed  to  Hungarian  millet  silage,  which  she  ate 
greedily. 

354.  Injurious  effects.  —  Foxtail  millet  has  long  been 
regarded  as  an  unsatisfactory  feed  for  horses  unless  fed 
sparingly.     The   experiment   at  the  North   Dakota  Ex- 
periment Station  in  which  horses  were  fed  millet  hay  for 
a  long  period  led  to  the  conclusion  "  that  millet  when  used 
alone  as  a  coarse  food  is  injurious  to  horses,  —  first  in 
producing  an  increased  action  in  the  kidneys ;   second,  in 
causing  lameness  and  swelling  of  the  joints ;    third,  in 
producing  infusion  of  the  blood  into  the  joints ;    fourth, 
in  destroying  the  texture  of  the  bones,  rendering  it  softer 
and  less  tenacious,  so  that  traction  causes  the  ligaments  and 
muscles  to  be  torn  loose." 

Millet  is  both  laxative  and  diuretic  in  its  action, 
but  except  in  horses  never  seems  to  produce  injurious 
effects.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  it  is  always 
better  to  feed  in  connection  with  other  roughage  instead 
of  alone. 

355.  Seed-production.  —  Millet      produces     abundant 
seed  and  is  usually  harvested  with  a  binder,  cured  in  shocks 
and  thrashed  with  a  grain  separator.     It  is  commonly  cut 
when  the  seeds  are  nearly  mature,  as  later  cutting  results 
in  some  loss  from  shattering. 

In  a  comparative  test  of  5  years  at  the  Ontario  Agri- 
cultural College,  Siberian  millet  averaged  47.5  bushels  an 
acre  ; .  Hungarian,  45.2  bushels ;  German,  38.8  bushels ; 
Golden  Wonder,  18.5  bushels. 

356.  Seed.  —  The  seeds  of  different  varieties  of  millet 
vary  considerably  in  size  and  in  weight  per  bushel.     In 


294        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 

most  states  the  legal  weight  of  common  and  German 
millets  is  50  pounds,  and  of  Hungarian-grass  48  pounds 
per  bushel.  The  actual  weight,  however,  varies  from  40 
to  55  pounds.  One  pound  contains  from  175,000  to 
250,000  seeds. 

357.  Diseases    and    insects.  —  The    only    important 
disease  of  foxtail  millet  is  smut  (Ustilago  crameri)  which 
replaces  the  grain  with  a  mass  of  black  spores.     The  disease 
is  transmitted  by  smut  spores  on  the  seed,  and  can  be  pre- 
vented by  treating  the  seed  with  hot  water  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  bunt  of  wheat. 

The  chinch-bug  is  very  injurious  to  millets  of  which 
it  seems  especially  fond.  On  this  account  millet  is 
sometimes  sown  around  or  in  strips  through  a  field 
of  wheat  to  attract  the  bugs.  The  insects  and  their 
eggs  may  then  be  destroyed  by  plowing  under  the 
millet. 

358.  Japanese  barnyard  millet    (Echinochloa  frumen- 
tacea).  —  This  millet  is  known  as  sanwa  millet  in  India 
and    in    America    has    been   called    billion-dollar   grass. 
It    is    cultivated    in    Japan,    India    and    other    oriental 
countries  for  human  food.  .  It  has  probably  originated 
from  the  common  barnyard  millet   (E.  crus-galli) ,  now 
a  cosmopolitan  weed  in  the  tropics  and  in  warm  temper- 
ate regions.     The  cultivated  plant  differs  mainly  in  its 
more  nearly  erect  habit,  more  turgid  seeds  and  in  always 
being  awnless. 

Japanese  millet  is  a  coarser  plant  than  any  foxtail 
millet,  and  on  account  of  its  thick  stems  does  not  cure 
readily  into  hay.  It  has  been  recommended  for  silage, 
but  on  the  whole  is  probably  best  used  for  soiling.  Reports 
differ  as  to  its  palatability,  probably  due  to  the  fact  that 
it  is  palatable  when  young  and  before  heading,  but  much 


MILLETS  AND   OTHER   ANNUAL    GRASSES       295 

less  so  as  it  approaches  maturity.  It  is  not  known  ever 
to  cause  any  ill  effects  either  on  horses  or  on  other 
animals. 

The  yields  are  large  when  there  is  ample  moisture. 
At  the  Massachusetts  Experiment  Station  it  has  produced 
as  high  as  6  tons  of  hay  per  acre  and  seed  yields  of  67 
bushels  per  acre. 

359.  Broom-corn  millet  (Panicum  miliaceum)  is  of 
prehistoric  cultivation  in  Europe  as  indicated  by  seeds 
found  in  Switzerland  and  Italy  with  human  remains  of  the 
stone  age.  It  was  probably  even  more  ancient  in  central 
Asia,  in  which  region  it  appears  to  be  native. 

The  cultivated  plant  is  sometimes  divided  into  three 
botanical  varieties :  effusum  with  loose  panicles ;  con- 
tractum  with  the  panicles  denser  above ;  and  compactum 
with  dense  panicles. 

The  numerous  agricultural  varieties  are  distinguished 
primarily  by  the  panicles,  secondarily  by  the  color  of  the 
glumes  which  may  be  red,  black  or  white. 

Broom-corn  millet  is  cultivated  largely  in  Europe, 
especially  in  Russia  and  throughout  temperate  Asia. 
It  is  invariably  grown  as  a  cereal  crop,  but  to  some 
extent  is  used  as  forage.  In  America  it  has  been  grown 
most  in  the  Dakotas  and  Manitoba,  though  it  is  well 
adapted  to  a  large  portion  of  the  West,  and  fairly  well  to 
the  East. 

From  a  forage  standpoint,  broom-corn  millet  is  not  as 
desirable  as  the  foxtail  millets,  the  yield  being  less  as  a 
rule  and  the  stems  more  woody  and  less  leafy.  For  seed- 
production  they  are,  however,  at  least  as  good  as  the  fox- 
tail millets. 

The  culture  of  broom-corn  millet  is  essentially  the  same 
as  that  of  foxtail  millet. 


296         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 


360.    COMPARATIVE  HAY  YIELDS  IN  POUNDS  TO  THE  ACRE  OF 
DIFFERENT  MILLETS  AT  SEVERAL  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS 


, 

^a 

H 

I 

X  £ 

§  o 

§1 
«  - 

el 

X  H 

11 

x2 

gS 

VARIETY 

£02 

o 

ED 

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g^ 

1 

ii 

o 

2  ^ 

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IS 

w^-^ 

—  '   ^ 

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25 

|  £ 

£2 

51 

0s 

^  s 

; 

° 

^ 

H 

H  S 

55 

Hay 

Hay 

Hay 

Hay 

ffay 

Green 

German  from  Dakota    . 

4000 

Common  from  Dakota 

4840 

German  from  Tennessee 

3800 

German  from  south 

2136 

German       

5248 

5600 

7700 

2611 

Common      ..... 

2952 

5600 

3360 

14520 

Hungarian        .     . 

2240 

6600 

4840 

4820 

3500 

Hungarian        .... 

2328 

Japanese  foxtail    .     .     . 

3440 

Japanese      broom  -  corn 

(P.  miliaceum} 

4232 

8600 

5600 

Hog  (P.  miliaceum} 

2632 

3320 

3000 

1150 

21054 

Golden  Wonder    . 

7000 

5000 

17908 

Siberian  foxtail     .     .     . 

6400 

3420 

10406 

Japanese  barnyard    .     . 

6200 

5250 

32912 

361.  Shama  millet  (Echinochloa  colona)  is  a  native 
of  India  where  it  is  more  or  less  cultivated  for  human 
food,  but  it  is  now  generally  spread  through  the  tropics 
and  in  the  warmer  parts  of  the  temperate  zone.  It  is 
not  uncommon  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  United 
States,  especially  the  southwest  and  in  Mexico.  It  has 
a  general  resemblance  to  barnyard  millets,  but  is  much 
smaller  in  every  way.  The  panicle  is  narrow  and  open 
and  the  spikelets  unawned.  The  grass  has  been  tested  at 


MILLETS  AND   OTHER  ANNUAL   GRASSES       297 


many  experiment  stations  on  small  plots,  but  has  not  been 
found  valuable  enough  in  comparison  with  other  millets. 

362.  Ragi,  finger  millet  or  coracan  (Eleusine  coracana) 
is  much  cultivated  in  India  and  to  some  extent  in  Africa 
as  a  cereal.     It  produces  large  crops  of  rather  poor  grain 
which  is  therefore  very  cheap.     The  cultivated  plant  is 
supposed  to  be  a  deriva- 
tive of  the  wild  Eleusine 

indica,  native  to  India. 
It  is  markedly  charac- 
terized by  having  5  to 
7  elongate  one-sided 
spikes  arranged  in  an 
umbel. 

Ragi  has  much  the 
same  adaptations  as 
foxtail  millet,  but  is 
coarser  and  more  leafy. 
The  varieties  are  nu- 
merous. In  small  tests 
it  has  succeeded  well 
throughout  the  South- 
ern States,  but  has  never 
come  into  use  as  a  forage 
crop  in  America. 

363.  Texas  millet 
(Panicum  texanum). — 
This    annual    grass    is 
native   to    Texas    and 
adjacent    Mexico.      It 
occurs  mainly   on   the 

bottom  lands  along  streams,  and  from  its  occurrence  along 
the  Colorado  River,  Texas,  is  most  commonly  known  as 


Fio.  30.  —  Texas  millet  (Panicum 
texanum).  a  and  b,  dorsal  and  ventral 
views  of  a  spikelet ;  c,  lemma. 


298         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

Colorado-grass.  It  has  shown  a  marked  tendency  to 
volunteer  in  cultivated  fields  after  the  manner  of  crab- 
grass,  not  only  in  Texas,  but  also  in  Alabama  and  other 
Southern  States  where  it  has  been  introduced. 

The  hay  of  Texas  millet  bears  an  excellent  reputation, 
and  as  it  is  practically  always  a  volunteer  crop,  it  is  highly 
esteemed.  The  seed  habits  are  good,  and  more  or  less 
seed  is  handled  by  Texas  seedsmen.  As  a  crop  to  be 
planted,  however,  it  cannot  compete  with  the  foxtail 
millets,  as  it  does  not  yield  so  heavily.  In  the  southern 
half  of  the  Gulf  States  it  is  probably  worth  while  to  estab- 
lish it  generally  so  that  it  will  make  a  portion,  at  least,  of 
the  volunteer  grasses  that  hold  their  own  in  cultivated 
land.  It  rarely  does  well,  however,  except  on  loams  and 
clays,  so  there  is  little  use  to  plant  it  on  sandy  lands. 

CEREALS    FOR   HAY 

364.  All  of  the  common  small  grains,  namely,  wheat, 
spelt,  emmer,  rye,  oats  and  barley,  may  be  and  are 
utilized  more  or  less  for  hay  production,  either  alone  or 
grown  in  mixtures  with  such  legumes  as  crimson  clover, 
vetches  and  field  peas.  The  production  of  hay  from 
such  crops  is  most  important  in  regions  where  the  rainfall 
is  comparatively  light.  Thus  wheat  is  very  commonly  cut 
for  hay  in  the  Columbia  Basin  region  of  Washington, 
Oregon  and  Idaho ;  barley  in  the  same  region,  but  more 
so  in  California.  Rye  and  oats  are  more  or  less  utilized 
for  this  purpose  in  all  regions  where  these  cereals  are  grown. 
According  to  the  Thirteenth  United  States  Census,  the  total 
area  of  small  grains  thus  cut  for  hay  aggregates  4,324,878 
acres,  with  an  average  yield  of  1.24  tons  an  acre.  This 
total  acreage  is  slightly  greater  than  that  of  alfalfa  and 
nearly  four  times  as  large  as  that  of  the  millets.  Such 


MILLETS  AND   OTHER  ANNUAL   GRASSES       299 

cereal  hays  are  mostly  utilized  for  feeding  to  cows,  but  with 
care  may  be  satisfactorily  fed  to  horses.  Rye  is  somewhat 
objectionable  on  account  of  awns  on  the  heads,  and  the 
same  thing  applies  to  awned  varieties  of  wheat  and  barley. 

The  straw  of  all  of  these  cereals  is  also  utilized  as  feed, 
that  of  oats  being  considered  far  more  valuable  than  any 
of  the  other  small  grains. 

The  same  use  of  small  grains  for  hay  is  made  in  Australia 
and  New  Zealand.  In  Australia  over  half  of  the  total  hay 
crop  is  made  from  wheat  and  nearly  half  of  it  from  oats.  In 
New  Zealand  over  half  of  the  hay  crop  is  produced  by  oats. 

Where  cereals  are  thus  cut  for  hay,  it  is  the  usual 
practice  to  cut  them  in  the  late  milk  or  early  dough  stage. 
In  the  western  United  States,  where  wheat  is  largely  har- 
vested by  headers  or  by  harvesters,  it  is  a  very  common 
practice  to  open  up  the  field ;  that  is,  cut  one  or  more 
swaths  clear  around  the  field  and  one  or  more  across  the 
field  so  as  to  make  a  passage  for  the  grain  harvesting 
machinery.  The  grain  cut  in  opening  up  the  field  is 
commonly  used  for  hay. 

OTHER   ANNUAL   GRASSES 

365.  Chess  or  cheat  (Bromus  secalinus).  —  Cheat  is 
an  annual  grass  native  to  the  Old  World  and  frequently 
occurring  as  a  weed  in  wheat  fields.  The  adaptations 
of  the  two  plants  are  very  similar  and  formerly  the  idea 
was  held  that  cheat  is  a  degenerate  or  changed  form  of 
wheat,  whence  its  name. 

Cheat  is  sometimes  grown  as  an  annual  crop  for  hay, 
planting  it  in  the  fall  like  winter  wheat.  Formerly  it 
was  quite  largely  grown  in  western  Oregon.  In  recent 
years  it  has  been  cultivated  in  northern  Georgia  under 
the  name  of  Arctic-grass. 


300        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

Cheat  is  easily  grown  and  produces  good  crops  of  hay. 
In  Georgia,  liverymen  consider  it  equal  to  timothy,  es- 
pecially if  it  be  cut  when  the  seeds  are  in  the  dough  stage. 
For  hay  purposes  it  probably  has  no  advantage  over  the 
ordinary  small  grains. 

366.  Canary-grass  (Phalaris  canariensis)  is,  with  little 
doubt,  native  to  the  countries  about  the  western  end  of 
the  Mediterranean,  though  there  is  doubt  about  its 
nativity  on  the  Canary  Islands,  whence  its  name  is 
derived.  It  was  introduced  into  the  Netherlands  from 
Spain  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  which 
seems  to  be  the  first  definite  mention  of  the  grass.  At  the 
present  time  it  is  cultivated  mainly  in  Turkey 
and  adjacent  countries  for  the  seed,  which  is 
used  to  some  extent  as  human  food,  but 
largely  as  feed  for  cage  birds. 

Canary-grass  is  an  annual  species,  growing 
to  a  height  of  3  to  4|  feet,  several  culms 
usually  stooling  from  the  same  root.  It  is 
conspicuously  characterized  by  its  dense 
oblong  head-like  panicle,  the  white  glumes 
having  green  nerves. 

Canary-grass  has  succeeded  very  well  in  Cali- 
fornia planted  in  fall,  and  in  Saskatchewan 
sown  in  spring.  It  wall  probably  succeed 
FIG.  31.—  wherever  barley  can  be  grown,  but  the  de- 
Canary  grass  mand  for  the  seed  is  limited.  As  a  hay  crop 
it  has  no  apparent  advantage  over  wheat, 
oats  or  barley.  Its  mode  of  culture  is  iden- 
tical with  that  of  the  small  grains.  At  Indian  Head, 
Saskatchewan,  yields  of  29  bushels  of  seed  and  3960  pounds 
of  straw  per  acre  have  been  secured,  and  in  California 
23,952  pounds  of  seed  were  grown  on  40  acres  in  1905. 


MILLETS  AND   OTHER  ANNUAL   GRASSES       301 

367.  Penicillaria  (Pennisetum  glaucum).  —  Penicillaria, 
Pencilaria  or  Cat-tail  millet  is  most  commonly  known  as 
Pearl  millet,  and  there  are  several  synonyms  of  its  scientific 
name.  It  is  probably  native  to  Africa,  where  it  is  largely 
cultivated  by  the  natives,  but  it  is  most  cultivated  in  India. 
It  was  early  brought  to  the  West  Indies  from  Africa.  It  is 
a  tall,  erect  annual,  usually  growing  5  to  8  feet  high,  but 
in  Florida  attaining  a  height  of  16  feet  on  rich  soil.  The 
stems  are  not  quite  as  stout  as  sorghum,  but  have  shorter 
nodes,  more  woody  cortex  and  rather  dry  pith  without 
sugar  content.  The  head  is  cylindrical,  very  dense,  4  to 
14  inches  long  and  bearing  numerous  round  white  ex- 
posed grains. 

There  are  several  varieties,  eight  or  more  having  been 
introduced  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture. The  common  variety  seems  to  be  that  grown 
extensively  in  India,  where  it  is  known  as  bajri.  In  one 
variety  from  South  Africa,  the  heads  are  much  shorter 
and  nearly  as  thick  as  long. 

Penicillaria  is  adapted  to  practically  the  same  con- 
ditions as  the  sorghums.  The  common  American  variety 
will  mature,  seed  as  far  north  as  Maryland  and  Nebraska, 
but  doubtless  earlier-maturing  sorts  could  be  developed. 

It  was  formerly  grown  to  a  greater  degree  than  at  pres- 
ent, both  in  the  South  and  in  the  semi-arid  regions,  but 
it  has  given  way  in  competition  with  the  sorghums.  As 
a  forage  it  is  not  so  desirable  on  account  of  the  harder 
pithy  stems.  As  a  cereal  it  has  never  had  any  standing 
in  America,  as  the  yield  in  grain  is  meager  and  of  poor 
quality,  'and  furthermore  is  subjected  to  much  loss  by 
birds. 

As  a  soilage  crop,  penicillaria  will  in  the  South  yield 
very  heavily  and  perhaps  is  exceeded  by  no  other  grass. 


302         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 

For  this  purpose  it  is  a  very  useful  forage  plant.  It 
should  be  cut  preferably  when  3  or  4  feet  high  before  the 
stems  become  hard  and  pithy.  In  the  southernmost 
states  it  can  be  cut  three  or  four  times  in  a  season  and  on 
very  rich  soil  as  many  as  six  cuttings  may  be  obtained. 

Penicillaria  has  been  recommended  for  silage,  but  for 
this  purpose  is  not  as  desirable  as  corn  or  sorghum. 

The  culture  of  penicillaria  is  practically  like  that  of 
corn  or  sorghum.  It  is  most  commonly  planted  in  rows 

3  feet  wide  and  3  to  6  inches  apart  in  the  rows,  under  which 
conditions  it  stools  abundantly.     For  thus  planting,  about 

4  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  are  needed.     It  may  also  be 
planted    thickly,    either    drilled    or    broadcasted,    under 
which  conditions  it  does  not  stool  so  much  nor  grow  so 
large.     Thus  sown  it  may  be  cut  and  cured  as  hay,  but 
on  account  of  its  thick  stems  is  not  easily  dried.     For  this 
purpose  about  30  pounds  of  seed  should  be  sown  to  the  acre. 
Sowing  should  take  place  about  the  same  time  as  corn,  as 
the  plant  does  not  withstand  frost  either  in  spring  or  fall. 

On  good  soils  penicillaria  will  yield  as  large  or  larger 
crops  of  forage  than  sorghums,  but  on  poorer  soils  not 
so  much.  Yields  to  the  acre  of  green  fodder  have  been  re- 
corded by  experiment  stations  as  follows  :  South  Carolina, 
6  cuttings,  94,424  pounds;  Georgia,  52,416  pounds  in 
3  cuttings ;  Alabama,  13,800  pounds ;  Louisiana,  16,000 
pounds ;  Kentucky,  80,320  in  2  cuttings ;  Delaware, 
9964  pounds ;  New  Mexico,  56,600  pounds ;  Arkansas, 
9600  pounds ;  California,  63,000  pounds ;  New  Jersey, 
24,000  pounds. 

Dry  fodder  yields  to  the  acre  are  reported  as'  follows : 
North  Carolina,  6806  pounds  ;  Kentucky,  32,800  pounds  ; 
Georgia,  19,474  pounds  ;  Alabama,  2900  pounds  ;  Arkansas, 
9600  pounds;  Washington,  D.C.,  15,440  pounds. 


MILLETS  AND   OTHER   ANNUAL    GRASSES        303 

Notwithstanding  large  yields,  penicillaria  has  not 
become  popular,  as  have  other  coarse  forage  grasses, 
especially  sorghum  and  Japanese  sugar-cane. 

At  the  Kansas  Experiment  Station,  penicillaria  stover 
was  compared  with  kafir  corn  stover  in  feeding  cattle. 
In  a  22-day  test  the  cattle  ate  only  half  as  much  of  the 
former  as  of  the  latter.  Those  eating  the  penicillaria 
stover  lost  an  average  of  30  pounds  each,  while  those 
fed  ( :i  kafir  corn  gained  an  average  of  6.9  pounds 
each. 

American  seed  is  at  present  grown  mainly  in  Georgia, 
where  the  yield  is  said  to  average  500  pounds  to  the  acre. 
Where  English  sparrows  are  abundant,  it  is  useless  to  try 
to  get  a  seed  crop. 

368.  Teosinte  (Euchlcena  m,exicana)  is  a  coarse  annual 
grass,  growing  8  to  12  feet  high,  and  commonly  producing 
many  stems  from  the  same  root.  It  is  a  native  of  tropical 
America,  probably  Mexico,  and  is  closely  related  to  corn, 
with  which  it  forms  hybrids. 

Teosinte  requires  a  rich  soil  and  a  long  season  of  moist 
hot  weather  for  its  best  development.  It  never  has  ma- 
tured north  of  central  Mississippi,  but  as  a  fodder  crop 
is  occasionally  grown  as  far  north  as  Maryland.  The 
first  frosts  of  autumn  promptly  turn  the  leaves  brown. 

In  recent  years  its  culture  in  the  United  States  has 
dwindled.  On  soils  of  moderate  fertility  it  does  not  yield 
as  well  as  the  sorghums  and  on  rich  soils  not  so  heavily 
as  Japanese  sugar-cane.  The  rather  high  cost  of  the  seed 
has  perhaps  also  been  a  factor  in  reducing  the  culture  of 
teosinte. 

Teosinte  may  be  used  in  the  same  way  as  sorghum; 
namely,  as  fodder,  green  feed  or  silage.  If  cut  green  for 
silage  two  cuttings  each  4  or  5  feet  high  can  be  secured  in 


804         FORAGE   PLANTS  AND   THEIR    CULTURE 

a  season.  The  stems  contain  a  small  amount  of  sugar 
and  the  herbage  is  readily  eaten  by  animals. 

On  account  of  its  abundant  tillering,  teosinte  is  best 
planted  in  hills  4  to  5  feet  apart  each  way,  which  requires 
about  3  pounds  of  seed  per  acre;  or  it  may  be  planted 
in  rows  4  to  5  feet  wide. 

Yields  to  the  acre  have  been  reported  by  various  experi- 
ment stations  as  follows :  Louisiana  (Audubon  Park),  50 
tons  green  weight ;  Georgia,  38,000  pounds  green  weight ; 
Mississippi,  44,000  pounds  green  weight ;  North  Carolina, 
4021  pounds  dry  fodder  against  4576  pounds  for  Orange 
sorghum;  South  Carolina  (Charleston),  43,923  pounds 
green  weight  in  6  cuttings ;  New  Jersey,  9  tons,  as  com- 
pared to  12.4  tons  for  milo. 


CHAPTER  XV 
ALFALFA 

ALFALFA  is  at  the  present  time  the  third  most  important 
forage  crop  in  America,  being  exceeded  only  by  timothy  and 
red  clover.  Under  irrigation  in  semiarid  regions  no  other 
perennial  forage  crop  is  known  which  will  yield  so  boun- 
teously. The  future  agricultural  development  of  western 
America  will  to  a  large  degree  be  associated  with  the  cul- 
ture of  this  plant.  Further,  it  may  be  safely  prophesied 
that  alfalfa  will  become  of  increasing  importance  in  the 
east,  as  the  peculiar  requirements  for  its  successful  culture 
become  better  known. 

369.  Agricultural  history.  —  Alfalfa  was  cultivated  by 
the  Greeks  and  Romans.  According  to  Pliny,  it  was 
introduced  into  Greece  from  Media  at  the  time  of  the 
Persian  wars  with  King  Darius ;  that  is,  about  470  B.C. 
Pliny's  statement  agrees  with  the  earlier  account  of 
Strabo.  Perhaps  both  are  based  on  the  authority  of 
Greek  writers  on  agriculture  whose  works  are  referred 
to  by  Pliny,  but  which  have  been  lost.  Most  writers 
have  accepted  the  statement  of  Pliny  and  of  Strabo,  but 
Fee  doubts  its  correctness.  Media  or  Persia  is  in  all 
probability  the  region  of  its  original  culture.  Confirma- 
tion of  this  conclusion,  is  found  in  the  fact  that  the  wild 
alfalfa  of  that  region  most  closely  resembles  the  culti- 
vated. 

Alfalfa  is  therefore  the  oldest  plant,  so  far  as  known,  to 
x  305 


306         FORAGE   PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

be  cultivated  solely  for  forage.  Furthermore,  it  is  the 
only  plant  cultivated  for  such  purpose  by  Asiatic  peoples 
until  modern  times.  Its  culture  in  Italy  in  the  days  of 
the  Roman  Empire  is  referred  to  by  Virgil,  Columella 
and  Varro,  and  it  was  doubtless  introduced  into  Spain  in 
imperial  Roman  days.  In  the  sixteenth  century .  it  was 
introduced  into  France  and  southern  Germany  and  from 
thence  to  England  at  least  as  early  as  1650. 

The  early  American  colonists  made  many  attempts  to 
cultivate  the  plant,  but  only  in  a  few  localities  was  any 
decided  success  achieved.  Its  rapid  development  in  the 
United  States  dates  from  1854,  when  it  was  introduced 
into  California  from  Chile. 

370.  Origin  of  the  common  names.  —  The  name  alfalfa 
is  of  Arabian  origin,  adopted  and  modified  by  the  Spanish. 
By  different  authorities  the  Arabian  word  is  variously 
spelt,  with,  or  without  the  prefix  el  or  al,  thus,  fisfisat, 
isjast,  elkasab,  alfafa,  alfasajat.  The  Arabian  designations 
are  probably  modifications  of  the  Persian  name  uspust, 
aspest  or  isfist.  The  word  alfalfa  is  now  used  almost 
exclusively  in  the  United  States. 

In  most  countries,  however,  the  name  lucern  is  in 
common  usage.  According  to  some  authorities  the  name 
is  derived  from  the  valley  of  Lucerna  in  northwestern 
Italy.  De  Candolle,  however,  considers  it  was  probably 
derived  from  its  local  name  in  the  south  of  France,  laou- 
zerdo,  apparently  a  corruption  of  the  Catalonian  name 
userdas.  Historical  evidence  indicates  that  the  plant 
was  introduced  into  France  from  Spain  and  not  from  Italy. 
The  word  luzerne  was  apparently,  first  recorded  in  1587 
by  Dalechamps  who  also  gives  the  form  luzert. 

The  name  medick  is  derived  direct!}*  from  the  Greek 
Medicai  and  Latin  Medico.,  so  called  because  introduced 


ALFALFA  307 

into  Greece  from  Media.  Purple  medick  is  ordinary 
alfalfa,  while  yellow  medick  is  sickle  alfalfa,  but  the  names 
are  rarely  used.  Black  medick,  however,  is  still  often 
used  for  Medicago  lupulina,  but  yellow  trefoil  is  a  more 
popular  name.  Erba  medica  is  still  an  appellation  of 
alfalfa  in  Italy  and  the  Spanish  sometimes  use  mielga  or 
melga,  perhaps  corrupted  forms  of  Medica. 

371.  Heat  relations.  —  In   climates   of   low   humidity, 
alfalfa  seems  able  to  withstand  extreme  summer  tempera- 
tures under  irrigation.     No   injury  from   heat   has  ever 
been  recorded  in  such  climates  as  those  of  Arizona  and 
Punjab,   India.     It  seems  probable,   therefore,   that  the 
crop  is  not  adapt atively  limited  in  its  heat  relations. 

High  temperatures  combined  with  even  moderate 
humidity  are  so  injurious  that  the  crop  is  nowhere  success- 
fully grown  in  humid  subtropical  or  tropical  regions. 
This  is  partly  due  to  the  fact  that  such  conditions  are 
favorable  to  many  weedy  plants  which  smother  out  the 
alfalfa,  but  even  if  grown  in  cultivated  rows,  alfalfa 
languishes  under  such  climatic  conditions. 

372.  Cold  relations.  —  The  minimum  temperature  that 
alfalfa  will  withstand  without  injury  is  difficult  to  deter- 
mine accurately,  as  it  is  affected  by  other  factors,  among 
them  variety,   degree  of  dormancy,   thickness  of  stand, 
soil  moisture  and  snow  cover.      These  factors  are  further 
discussed  under  winterkilling.     In  Europe,  according  to 
Stebler,  a  temperature  of  -  13°  Fahrenheit  is  injurious 
only  when  the  plants  are  unprotected  by  snow. 

Brand  and  Waldron  report  the  effects  of  winter  cold 
on  68  varieties  and  strains  of  alfalfa  at  Dickinson,  North 
Dakota,  in  the  winter  of  1908-1909,  when  a  minimum  of 
—  31°  Fahrenheit  was  reached.  The  seeds  were  planted 
both  in  drilled  rows  and  in  hills  in  the  spring  of  1908, 


308       FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

and  the  resulting  plants  were  not  protected  by  snow 
during  the  coldest  weather.  The  drilled  rows  suffered  less 
than  the  hills. 

Tabulated  according  to  the  geographical  origin  of  the 
strains,  the  results  are  shown  in  the  following  table :  — 

AVERAGE  MORTALITY  OF  REGIONAL  STRAINS  OF  ALFALFA 
PLANTED  IN  HlLLS  AT  DlCKINSON,  NORTH  DAKOTA,  1908-1909 


5  strains  from  South  America      .  .  . 99.6  % 

2  strains  from  Africa      .     . 100.0% 

2  strains  from  Russia 83.9% 

5  strains  from  Germany 83.1% 

5  strains  from  France 89.6% 

1  strain  from  Italy 98.7% 

1  strain  from  Spain .  100.0% 

4  strains  from  Arabia 100.0% 

12  strains  from  Turkestan 72.3% 

3  strains  from  Mongolia 33.5  % 

2  strains  from  Canada 45.4% 

2  strains  from  Mexico .     .  85.0% 

18  strains  from  United  States 83.3  % 

10  strains  from  Utah 90.4% 

1  strain  from  Colorado 86.1% 

1  strain  from  Kansas 84.8  % 

3  strains  from  Nebraska 76.4  % 

3  strains  from  Montana      . 65.4% 

1  strain  Grimm  alfalfa,  from  Fargo,  North  Dakota     ;  2.8% 

1  strain  Grimm  alfalfa,  from  Clearwater,  Minnesota  .  7.0% 

1  strain  Turkestan  alfalfa,  from  Highmore,  S.  D.        .  9.2% 


While  the  mortality  may  not  have  been  due  to  cold 
alone,  the  data  clearly  indicate  great  differences  in  cold 
resistance,  as  a  rule  correlated  with  the  severity  of  the 
winter  climate  of  the  region  whence  the  seed  was  secured. 

Several  of  the  same  strains  reported  on  had  been  sown 
broadcast  in  neighboring  plots  in  the  spring  of  1907, 
and  were  exposed  to  the  same  conditions  in  the  winter 


ALFALFA  309 

of  1908-1909.  The  mortality  in  these  plots  was  very 
much  less,  in  most  cases  not  enough  to  injure  the  stand 
seriously.  It  is  not  clear  to  what  extent  this  lessened 
mortality  was  due  to  the  alfalfa  being  broadcasted  and 
the  plants  therefore  close  together,  and  how  far  the  greater 
age  of  the  plants,  and  perhaps  other  factors,  had  a  bear- 
ing on  the  results.  The  fact  that  the  surviving  stand 
varied  considerably  in  different  parts  of  the  broadcasted 
plots  indicates  that  other  factors  than  low  temperature 
were  concerned. 

The  data  clearly  show,  however,  that  a  temperature 
of  -  31°  Fahrenheit  in  a  region  of  comparatively  low 
humidity  is  decidedly  injurious  to  most  varieties  of  al- 
falfa when  growing  in  hills  or  rows  and  unprotected  by 
snow.  Even  the  most  hardy  cultivated  sorts  suffer  a  slight 
loss  under  such  conditions. 

Undoubtedly  the  highest  degree  of  cold  resistance  is 
found  in  Siberian  strains  of  sickle  alfalfa.  According  to 
Hansen  this  occurs  even  farther  northward  than  Yakutsk, 
latitude  62°,  where  a  minimum  temperature  of  —  83° 
Fahrenheit  is  recorded. 

Extensive  trials  of  alfalfa  varieties  were  conducted  at 
the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station  during  six  years,  and 
data  were  kept  on  the  loss  due  to  winterkilling.  The  loss 
varied  greatly  in  different  winters  and  between  different 
varieties  in  the  same  winter.  In  most  cases  Grimm  alfalfa 
suffered  the  least  loss.  Turkestan  proved  very  variable, 
a  fact  doubtless  connected  with  the  wide  origin  of  the 
commercial  seed.  In  one  winter  with  a  minimum  tem- 
perature of  —  17°  Fahrenheit  three  strains  of  Turkestan 
alfalfa  suffered  no  loss,  while  14  strains  of  Grimm  alfalfa 
lost  from  15  to  23  per  cent,  a  much  higher  loss  than  oc- 
curred in  other  winters  with  more  severe  cold. 


310        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

373.  Humidity  relations.  —  Alfalfa  is  especially  adapted 
to  regions  possessing  a  semi-arid  climate,  and  in  such  areas 
succeeds  well  in  nearly  all  types  of  soil,  and  through  a 
wide  range  of  normal  annual  temperatures.     In  moister 
climates,  such  as  much  of  Europe  and  the  eastern  United 
States,    success   is   rarely   secured   excepting   where   soil 
conditions  are  unusually  favorable.     In  arid  regions  the 
plant  will   withstand   great  heat   without  injury,  but  a 
combination  of  heat  and  humidity  is  decidedly  harmful. 
On  this  account,  success  with  the  crop  in  tropical  or  sub- 
tropical regions  can  be  secured  only  where  the  climatic 
conditions    are    such    as    to    render    artificial    irrigation 
necessary. 

Even  in  temperate  climates,  wet  weather  is  more 
injurious  than  drought.  According  to  Stebler,  little 
success  is  secured  in  Europe  where  the  annual  rainfall 
exceeds  32  to  36  inches.  In  the  United  States,  however, 
marked  success  is  obtained  on  certain  soils  in  Mississippi 
and  Alabama,  where  the  annual  rainfall  exceeds  50  inches, 
but  in  general  an  excess  of  annual  rainfall  over  40  inches 
is  decidedly  unfavorable  to  the  plant. 

374.  Soil  relations.  —  Under    semi-arid    conditions    of 
climate,  alfalfa  succeeds  in  most  types  of  soil  excepting 
those  heavily  charged  with   alkali.     On  account  of  its 
great  root  development,  deep  soils  are  especially  suitable 
to   alfalfa.     Good   drainage   is   also   essential,    as   alfalfa 
roots  will  not  grow  in  water-logged  soils. 

Under  humid  climatic  conditions,  alfalfa  is  especially 
intolerant  of  adverse  soil  conditions.  In  such  climates, 
its  culture  is  rarely  successful,  except  on  deep,  fairly  fer- 
tile, well-drained  soils  rich  in  lime.  A  few  types  of  soil 
rich  in  potash,  but  poor  in  lime,  have  also  been  found  suit- 
able, but  liming  increases  the  crop  even  in  such  soils. 


ALFALFA 


311 


312        FOEAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

375.  Distribution  of  the  alfalfa  crop.  —  The  regions  in 
which  alfalfa  is  prominent  as  a  crop  are  those  possessing 
the  proper  climatic  conditions,  or  in  lieu  of  this,  unusually 
favorable  soil  conditions.  Thus  the  crop  is  important 
in  the  western  United  States,  the  Mediterranean  region, 
Australia,  Argentina,  Chile,  Peru,  South  Africa  and 
Central  Asia  because  of  favorable  climate.  Regions  with 


FIG.  33.  —  Map  of  the  United  States  and  Canada  showing  acreage  of 
alfalfa.     Figures  =  acres. 

less  favorable  climate,  but  with  an  unusually  favorable 
limestone  soil  occur  in  Mississippi,  Alabama,  New  York, 
Ohio  and  other  states  and  in  portions  of  Europe. 

The  present  northernmost  limit  of  American  culture 
is  near  the  51st  parallel  of  latitude,  in  Assiniboia.  In 
Colorado  it  is  grown  successfully  at  an  altitude  of  8637 
feet,  and  one  field  14  years  old  is  recorded  as  being  7900 
feet  above  sea  level. 

The  accompanying  map  shows  the  distribution  of  the 
crop  by  acres  in  the  United  States  and  Canada. 


ALFALFA  313 

376.  Botanical    varieties    of    alfalfa.  —  Wild    alfalfas 
occur  over  much  of  central  and  western  Asia,  scattered 
through  the  southern  half  of  Europe,  and  in  the  mountains 
of  northern  Africa.     The  wild  plants  are  very  variable, 
but  some  are  so  much  like  the  cultivated  that  there  is 
no  reason  to  doubt  the  genetic  origin  of  the  latter. 

Besides  the  ordinary  cultivated  form  of  alfalfa  about 
15  distinct  varieties  have  been  named  by  botanists.  Only 
one  of  these  has  been  of  any  particular  economic  impor- 
tance, namely,  variety  falcata  with  yellow  flowers  and 
smooth  sickle-shaped  pods.  The  usefulness  of  this  variety 
lies  mainly  in  its  hardiness  and  the  valuable  hybrids  it 
makes  with  ordinary  alfalfa. 

377.  Cultivated  varieties  of  alfalfa.  —  At  the  present 
time,   there  are  no  established  varieties  of  alfalfa  that 
are  even  approximately  pure  strains.     Every  field,  from 
whatever  source,  exhibits  a  widely  diverse  assemblage  of 
individuals.     Nevertheless,    several    of    the    commercial 
varieties  or  regional  strains  show  combinations  of  char- 
acters  by  which   they  may  be   distinguished.      Others, 
like  Turkestan,  can  be  differentiated  from  common  alfalfa 
only  by  obscure  differences  in  behavior. 

The  agronomically  important  varieties  or  strains  of 
alfalfa  include  common  or  ordinary,  Turkestan,  Arabian, 
Peruvian,  Siberian  or  sickle,  and  variegated  (including 
sand  lucern  and  Grimm). 

Common  or  ordinary  aljalfa.  —  Under  this  category  is  in- 
cluded the  alfalfa  ordinarily  grown  in  Europe,  the  United 
States,  Argentina  and  Australia.  Most  of  the  European 
seed  imported  into  the  United  States  is  from  Provence, 
France,  but  seed  is  also  grown  in  Italy,  Hungary  and 
Germany.  There  is  a  growing  tendency  in  the  American 
seed  trade  to  designate  the  state  in  which  the  seed  is 


314        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

grown.  Dryland  alfalfa  is  ordinary  alfalfa  grown  one  or 
more  generations  under  semi-arid  conditions  without 
irrigation.  The  seed  is  generally  considered  superior  for 
dryland  farming. 

Turkestan  alfalfa  has  been  imported  into  the  United 
States  since  1898.  The  seed  can  usually  be  distinguished 
by  the  weed  seeds  present,  especially  Eruca  saliva  and 
Centaur ea  picris.  The  plants  are  indistinguishable  from 
ordinary  alfalfa.  The  consensus  of  American  opinion  is 
that  this  variety  is  inferior  in  the  humid  eastern  United 
States,  but  in  the  semi-arid  regions  has  some  superiority 
in  drought  and  cold  endurance.  Under  American  condi- 
tions, Turkestan  alfalfa  produces  but  very  small  crops  of 
seed.  On  this  account,  it  is  not  increasing  in  importance 
notwithstanding  the  fact  that  most  of  imported  alfalfa 
seed  is  from  Turkestan. 

Arabian  alfalfa  comes  from  the  lower  valley  of  the 
Euphrates.  It  is  characterized  by  its  hairiness,  large 
leaflets,  very  rapid  growth  and  relatively  short  life.  The 
seeds,  too,  are  decidedly  larger  than  any  other  strain. 
It  begins  to  grow  and  continues  growth  at  a  lower  tempera- 
ture than  common  alfalfa,  which,  together  with  its  remark- 
ably rapid  growth,  enables  it  to  produce  more  cuttings 
in  a  season  than  any  other  variety.  In  the  Imperial  Valley 
of  California,  it  has  produced  twelve  cuttings  in  a  season 
and  in  the  Sacramento  Valley  of  the  same  state,  eight 
cuttings.  Unfortunately  it  is  short-lived,  the  stand  be- 
coming thin  by  the  third  year  and  but  few  plants  surviv- 
ing the  fourth  year. 

Peruvian  alfalfa. — This  variety  (Medicago  saliva  var. 
polia  Brand)  comes  from  the  highlands  of  Peru.  It  is 
distinguished  by  the  marked  pubescence  of  its  whole 
herbage,  which  gives  it  a  somewhat  bluish  appearance; 


ALFALFA  315 

its  relatively  coarse,  very  erect  stems ;  its  comparatively 
large  leaflets.  Physiologically  it  behaves  much  like 
Arabian  alfalfa  in  that  it  begins  to  grow  earlier  in  spring 
and  continues  growing  later  in  fall  than  ordinary  alfalfa. 
Partly  on  this  account  it  is  likely  to  be  injured  by  severe 
cold.  Its  large  size  and  rapid  growth  make  it  a  valuable 
variety  for  California  and  Arizona. 

Variegated  alfalfa.  —  This  term  is  applied  to  crosses 
between  ordinary  purple-flowered  alfalfa  and  the  yellow- 
flowered  sickle  alfalfa.  In  the  .cross,  a  great  variety  of 
flower  colors  appear  —  white,  cream,  yellow,  bluish-green, 
smoky-green  and  purple.  Variegated  alfalfa  is  in  some 
other  respects  intermediate  between  its  parents.  It  is 
rather  decumbent  in  habit,  but  has  greater  cold  endurance 
than  ordinary  alfalfa.  This  is  partly  due  to  its  tendency 
to  produce  rootstocks,  a  character  inherited  from  its 
yellow-flowered  parent. 

Under  the  name  sand  lucern,  variegated  alfalfa  has 
long  been  grown  in  Europe,  especially  Germany,  where  it 
enjoys  the  reputation  of  being  superior  for  sandy  soils. 
In  the  United  States,  sand  lucern  has  given  excellent 
results,  being  superior  in  both  drought  resistance  and 
winter  hardiness. 

Grimm  alfalfa  is  an  acclimated  strain  of  sand  lucern 
brought  to  Minnesota  from  Wertheim,  Germany,  in  1857. 
In  its  half  century  of  culture  under  severe  climatic  condi- 
tions, it  has  apparently  gained  additional  winter  hardi- 
ness through  the  elimination  of  the  less  hardy  plants. 
At  the  present  time,  Grimm  alfalfa  seed  is  the  most  ex- 
pensive on  the  market,  being  greatly  in  demand  for  sowing 
in  states  where  the  winter  is  very  severe. 

Yellow,  sickle  or  Siberian  alfalfa  occurs  wild  throughout 
northern  Europe  and  Siberia.     The  European  form  was 


316        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

formerly  cultivated  to  a  slight  extent  in  Sweden  and  else- 
where in  Europe.  The  yield,  however,  is* small  on  account 
of  its  usually  decumbent  habit  and  the  lack  of  aftermath, 
and  the  stems  early  become  woody.  The  seed  is  expensive 
because  it  shatters  readily. 

Several  forms  from  Siberia  have  been  introduced  into 
the  United  States  in  recent  years,  especially  with  the  end 
in  view  of  securing  hardier  alfalfas  for  Dakota,  Montana, 
and  other  states  with  cold  winters.  Some  of  these  Sibe- 
rian strains  are  erect  or  nearly  so,  while  others  have  a 
remarkable  development  of  rootstocks.  It  is  not  unlikely 
that  some  of  these  may  prove  highly  valuable,  provided 
seed  can  be  grown  satisfactorily.  In  any  case,  they  offer 
high  promise  for  breeding  work. 

378.  Importance  of  the  varieties.  —  Thus  far,  regional 
or  other  varieties  have  been  of  relatively  small  importance. 
At  least  95  per  cent  of  the  alfalfa  of  the  United  States 
may  be  called  ordinary  alfalfa.  Most  of  the  seed  is  either 
American  grown,  or  imported  from  Turkestan.  The 
Turkestan  alfalfa  is  slightly  more  resistant  to  both  cold 
and  drought.  Variegated  alfalfa,  especially  the  Grimm 
strain,  is .  decidedly  more  cold  resistant  than  ordinary 
alfalfa,  and  with  cheaper  seed  will  come  into  much  larger 
use,  especially  in  the  northern  tier  of  states.  Peruvian 
alfalfa  is  more  valuable  than  common  alfalfa  in  the  south- 
western states,  owing  to  its  large  size  and  rapid  growth, 
but  as  yet  it  is  not  largely  cultivated.  Arabian  alfalfa 
lasts  only  about  two  years,  and  in  spite  of  its  very  rapid 
growth,  this  has  militated  against  its  use. 

It  is  altogether  likely  that  in  the  further  development  of 
alfalfa  culture,  improved  varieties  will  occupy  a  more 
prominent  place,  especially  such  as  are  cold  enduring  or 
which  produce  large  seed  crops. 


ALFALFA 


317 


379.  Influence  of  source  of  seed.  —  The  general  con- 
clusion to  be  drawn  from  the  available  data  concerning 
the  influence  of  the  source  of  the  seed  of  alfalfa,  is  that 
the  best  results  are  as  a  rule  to  be  secured  from  locally 
grown  seed,  provided  there  is  no  difference  in  variety  in- 
volved. It  may  happen  that  a  newly  introduced  variety 
or  strain  is  superior  not  on  account  of  source  of  the  seed 
but  because  of  inherently  better  qualities. 

In  places  where  alfalfa  is  grown,  but  which  must  depend 
on  distant  sources  for  seed,  the  question  of  the  relative 
value  of  different  regional  strains  becomes  important. 
Elsewhere  this  factor  is  of  minor  consequence. 

In  Germany  and  France  several  investigators  have 
compared  the  relative  behavior  of  plots  sown  respectively 
with  seed  of  American  and  of  European  alfalfa  from  dif- 
ferent sources.  In  all  the  trials  reported  the  yield  of  hay 
from  the  American  seed  was  least.  At  Hohenheim, 
Germany,  Kirchner  found  American  alfalfa  more  subject 
to  mildew  than  European.  Provence-grown  alfalfa  seed 
is  held  in  high  regard  throughout  Europe,  but  comparative 
trials  have  not  shown  that  it  bears  consistently  heavier 
yields  than  other  European  grown  seeds. 

At  three  Danish  experiment  stations,  the  following 
results  were  secured  with  regional  strains :  — 


ORIGIN 

1910 

1911 

1912 

Hungarian      

100 

100 

100 

German 

102 

92 

89 

French        

102 

96 

97 

Italian        ... 

104 

96 

90 

Russian      

94 

83 

69 

American 

45 

49 

67 

318        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 

The  amount  of  accurate  data  concerning  the  relative 
value  in  America  of  alfalfa  seed  from  various  sources  is 
not  large,  but  is  supplemented  by  the  experience  of  prac- 
tical farmers.  In  the  Eastern  States  French  (Provence) 
seed  has  as  a  rule  proven  quite  as  satisfactory  as  western 
American  seed,  while  Turkestan  seed  has  given  decidedly 
inferior  results.  In  the  West,  excepting  where  the  winters 
are  very  severe,  Provence  seed  has  also  proven  very  satis- 
factory. California-grown  seed  is  not  held  in  high  repute, 
even  in  that  state,  but  there  seems  insufficient  evidence 
to  warrant  this  attitude.  In  general  southern-grown  seed 
is  not  favored  in  more  northern  regions,  and  the  evidence 
is  fairly  conclusive  that  such  strains  are  inferior  in  cold 
resistance. 

380.  Comparison  of  regional  strains.  —  In  recent  years 
many  experiment  stations  have  tested  the  relative  yield- 
ing capacities  of  alfalfa  seed  from  different  sources.  This 
has  been  done  more  with  the  idea  of  determining  whether 
any  of  the  regional  strains  possess  really  different  qual- 
ities as  many  of  them  come  from  countries  where  no  con- 
siderable quantity  of  commercial  seed  is  produced. 

Practically  all  the  imported  commercial  seed  used  in 
America  is  from  Turkestan,  so. that  the  only  source  of 
seed  problem  which  is  at  present  of  much  concern,  is  the 
relative  yielding  capacity  of  Turkestan  as  compared  with 
that  from  various  American  states. 

The  data  thus  far  secured  at  most  of  the  experiment 
stations  do  not  admit  of  very  clear  deductions  being 
drawn.  Where  the  tests  have  been  conducted  longest 
the  actual  differences  in  yield  are  not  very  pronounced. 
The  results  shown  in  the  following  table  were  secured  by 
planting  the  same  bulked  seed  of  the  different  strains  re- 
ported upon : — 


ALFALFA 


319 


TABLE  SHOWS  YIELDS  OF  HAY  IN  POUNDS  AN  ACRE  OF  SEV- 
ERAL REGIONAL  STRAINS  OF  ALFALFA  GROWN  AT  VARIOUS 
EXPERIMENT  STATIONS 


o    - 

r 

PU  «' 

Q 

Q 

Q 

IS- 

o« 

B£ 

•4    . 

00  «" 

SOURCE  OF  SEED 

fc     .IN 

S-$ 

B£ 

|~>jj 

1^ 

K 

P5iC 

geo 

*  °*  > 

j    . 

fc  g* 

2  > 

z   • 

H     . 
W  > 

i> 

§H^ 

j^ 

P<H 

ii 

o"^ 

5<j 

g^ 

^ 

o 

-<j 

5    ' 

Q 

w 

Canada  

8,709 

5,050 

Utah  (irrigated)    .     . 

6,800 

9,980 

Utah  (non-irrigated) 

7,943 

5,400 

2,988 

1,085 

9,820 

Nebraska     .           .     . 

7,473 

8,300 

3,160 

11.8201 

Montana      .           .     . 

6.2941 

11,060 

6,733 

5,100 

2.9511 

11,500 

2,405 

Ohio  

11,108 

Kansas   .     .           .     . 

,12,315 

5,400 

2,547 

874 

11,260 

1,460 

Texas      .     .           .     . 

7.8001 

3,045 

11,000 

New  York    .          .     . 

7,800 

3,008 

Colorado 

6,000 

1,121 

11,040 

Grimm    .      .           .      . 

5,5892 

9,620 

7,806 

2,  ISO2 

960 

Turkestan   .... 

5.8251 

10,286 

6,500 

5,6953 

1,646s 

10,500 

2.0732 

Sand  lucern     .      .     . 

9,2332 

9.89S3 

5,150 

1,849s 

France    

7,582s 

6,800 

10,140 

381.  Important  characteristics  of  alfalfa.  —  Alfalfa  owes 
its  high  importance  as  a  forage  crop  to  a  combination  of 
characteristics,  as  follows  :  — 

(1)  its  high  nutritive  value  and  palatability ; 

(2)  its  large  total  yield  where  successful  ; 

(3)  its  drought  resistance,  due  largely  to  its  very  deep 
roots ; 

and  (4)  its  long  life. 

Such  a  combination  of  desirable  qualities  has  led  to  a 
vast  amount  of  experimental  investigations  with  alfalfa, 
perhaps  more  in  the  aggregate  than  has  been  devoted  to 
any  other  forage  plant. 

1  Average  for  seed  from  2  sections  of  the  state. 

2  Average  for  seed  from  4  sources. 

3  Average  for  seed  from  2  sources. 


320        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 

382.  Life  period.  —  The  life  period  of  the  alfalfa  plant 
varies  according  to  conditions  and  variety.     In  the  semi- 
arid   regions   of  America,    authenticated   cases   of   fields 
twenty-five  years  old  are  recorded,  and  much  longer  ages 
are  asserted.     In  the  more  humid  East,  fields  rarely  per- 
sist more  than  five  years,  largely  owing  to  the  ingress  of 
weeds. 

In  Europe  fields  under  ordinary  conditions  are  reputed 
to  last  four  to  six  years ;  under  favorable  conditions,  nine 
to  twelve  years ;  and  in  exceptional  cases,  fifteen  to 
twenty  years,  or  very  rarely  thirty  years. 

Arabian  alfalfa  is  a  short-lived  variety,  few  individuals 
persisting  as  much  as  four  or  five  years  even  under  favor- 
able conditions. 

Yellow  or  sickle  alfalfa  lives,  according  to  Werner, 
six  or  eight  years. 

Variegated  alfalfa  is  perhaps  as  long-lived  as  ordinary 
alfalfa,  but  records  are  lacking. 

Alfalfa  yields  are  heaviest  from  plots  three  years  or 
more  old,  and  tend  to  decline  by  the  seventh  year.  Crud 
in  France  secured  the  heaviest  yields  in  the  third  and 
fourth  years  followed  by. a  gradual  decline  to  the  seventh 
year.  Walz  in  Germany  obtained  maximum  yields  in 
the  third,  fourth,  fifth  and  sixth  years,  a  gradual  dimi- 
nution of  the  yield  following  in  the  next  three  years. 

383.  Roots.  —  The  roots  of  alfalfa  are  remarkable  for 
their  length  and  the  depth  to  which  they  penetrate  the 
soil.     Under  ordinary  conditions  they  will  descend  to  a 
depth  of   6  feet,  and   authentic   instances  are  recorded 
where   they   have   reached   a   depth   of    15  feet.       Less 
well-authenticated  reports  of  roots  25  to  45  feet  in  length 
have  been  made,  while  Stebler.  and  Schroter  cite  Bonnet's 
record  of  a  tap  root  66  feet  long.     In  ordinary  alfalfa  the 


ALFALFA  321 

root  maintains  its  tap  character,  the  branches  being,  usually 
much  smaller  than  the  main  root  which  may  become  one 
inch  in  diameter,  but  rarely  exceeds  half  this  thickness. 
The  crown  which  is  just  beneath  the  surface  of  the  soil, 
becomes  much  branched  and  in  old  plants  may  give  rise 
to  as  many  as  100  ascending  leafy  branches.  True  rhi- 
zomes rarely  occur  in  common  alfalfa,  though  the  crown 
may  become  branched  2  or  3  inches  below  the  surface. 

The  root  system  of  yellow  or  sickle  alfalfa  differs 
markedly  from  common  alfalfa  in  producing  abundant 
rhizomes.  Not  only  this,  but  in  some  cases  aerial  branches 
arise  directly  from  horizontal  roots.  Such  roots  may 
extend  six  feet  or  more,  giving  rise  at  intervals  to  aerial 
shoots. 

Variegated  alfalfa,  in  accord  with  its  hybrid  origin, 
possesses  roots  with  intermediate  characters.  In  many 
cases  the  roots  promptly  divide  into  several  branches, 
and  rootstock  development  also  occurs  in  a  large  propor- 
tion of  the  plants.  On  account  of  this  root  branching, 
variegated  alfalfa  is  less  subject  to  heaving,  and  the  deep 
crown  and  rootstocks  protect  the  plant  against  severe 
winter  cold. 

Oliver  has  developed  hybrids  that  under  greenhouse 
conditions  produce  rootstocks  luxuriantly,  and  suggests 
that  such  varieties  will  be  especially  valuable  for  pastur- 
age. 

Alfalfa  will  not  thrive  in  water-logged  soil,  or,  in  the 
language  of  the  farmer,  will  not  withstand  "  wet  feet." 
The  probable  reason  for  this  is  more  likely  due  to  insuffi- 
cient air  than  to  superabundance  of  moisture.  Alfalfa 
will  rarely  succeed  unless  the  water  table  is  more  than  a 
foot  from  the  surface. 

On  account  of  the  deep  roots,  a  friable  subsoil  is  best 


322        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

suited  to  alfalfa,  though  fair  success  can  be  secured  where 
an  impermeable  layer  occurs  a  foot  or  so  beneath  the  sur- 
face. While  alfalfa  roots  will  penetrate  a  firm  subsoil, 
they  apparently  possess  no  greater  ability  in  this  respect 
than  most  trees  and  shrubs. 

The  growth  of  the  root  on  young  plants  is  very  rapid. 
Hays  at  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station  found  them 
to  be  3  feet  long  in  plants  when  2  months  old,  and 
6J  feet  when  3  months  old.  Headden  in  Colorado 
reports  roots  9  feet  long  on  plants  9  months  old. 

Alfalfa  roots  have  sometimes  been  reported  as  being 
destructive  to  drain  tiling.  Cook  in  Ohio  records  a  case 
where  the  roots  in  a  field  seven  years  old  had  filled  up 
thirty-two  feet  of  three-inch  drain  tile  placed  three  feet 
beneath  the  surface.  It  is  very  doubtful,  however, 
whether  alfalfa  left  only  three  years  will  in  any  way  affect 
the  tiles. 

384.  Relations  to  soil  moisture.  —  Alfalfa  roots  will 
penetrate  but  a  few  inches  deeper  than  the  permanent 
water  table.  Further  downward  growth  is  probably 
mainly  due  to  lack  of  air.  It  is  on  account  of  this  moisture 
relation  that  alfalfa  should  be  planted  only  on  deep,  well- 
drained  soil,  as  other  crops  thrive  better  where  the  water 
table  is  shallow. 

According  to  Fortier,  alfalfa  on  irrigated  land  does  not 
do  well  after  the  third  year.  He  thinks  this  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  water  table  is  kept  too  high  during  the  spring 
and  summer. 

Alfalfa  does  not  endure  being  covered  by  flood  waters. 
During  the  growing  season  it  may  be  destroyed  if  covered 
by  water  for  twenty-four  hours.  When  dormant,  how- 
ever, it  will  withstand  a  similar  flooding  for  a  week  or 
more. 


ALFALFA  323 

385.  Seedlings.  —  Alfalfa  seedlings  are  poorly  adapted 
to  cope  with  ordinary  weeds  because  the  initial  growth  is 
largely  centered  in  root  production.     No  exact  study  seems 
to  have  been  made  of  the  relative  rate  of  growth  in  seed- 
lings of  roots  and  shoots.    Porter  at  the  Minnesota  Experi- 
ment Station  records  that  plants  two  months  old  had  roots 
3  feet  long  and  tops  10  inches  high ;    at  five  months  the 
roots  were  6J  feet  long  and  the  tops  16  inches  high. 

386.  Rootstocks.  —  Common  alfalfa  rarely  shows  any 
trace  of  rootstocks.     These  are,  however,  well  developed 
in  some  forms  of  sickle   alfalfa,   and  remarkably  so  in 
Medicago  saliva  Gaetula  from  Tunis,  in  which  they  may 
reach  a  length  of  3|  feet.     They  also  appear  commonly 
in  the  variegated  hybrid  alfalfas,  and  less  so  in  Turkestan 
and  Mongolian  alfalfas,  but  appear  to  be  absent  in  the 
Peruvian  and  Arabian  forms. 

Oliver  has  bred  some  hybrids  remarkable  for  the  extent 
to  which  they  develop  rootstocks,  at  least  under  green- 
house conditions.  Some  of  the  hybrids  form  a  dense 
matted  growth,  a  single  plant  covering  a  surface  of  several 
square  feet,  and  presenting  much  the  general  appearance 
of  white  clover.  The  value  of  these  for  pasturage  purposes 
is  suggested. 

Oakley  has  recently  described  some-  extraordinary 
examples  of  sickle  alfalfa.  These  produce  horizontal 
roots  two  to  four  feet  long,  which  at  intervals  give  rise 
to  erect  leafy  shoots.  These  shoots  may  grow  from  as 
great  a  depth  as  twelve  inches,  and  commonly  arise  from 
nodular  swellings  on  the  roots. 

The  development  of  rootstocks  is  greater  when  plants 
are  grown  isolated  than  when  sown  thickly.  It  seems 
also  to  be  encouraged  by  partly  covering  the  plants  with 
soil.  True  rootstocks  on  alfalfa  were  first  noted  on 


324       FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

variegated  alfalfa  in  England  in  1791  by  Le  Blanc,  who 
states  that  he  preferred  this  variety  because  of  its  greater 
ability  to  withstand  cold  and  also  to  resist  choking  by 
grasses. 

Under  Colorado  conditions,  Blinn  found  that  Arabian 
and  North  African  strains  of  alfalfa,  when  planted  in  hills, 
suffered  a  loss  of  over  one-half  from  winter-killing.  Under 
the  same  conditions,  strains  from  Mexico,  Spain  and 
South  America  also  showed  considerable  loss,  while 
Turkestan  and  Grimm  alfalfa  plants  all  survived.  In 
connection  with  the  last  two  varieties,  the  production  of 
rootstocks  is  noted,  and  Blinn  believes  that  winter  hardi- 
ness is  largely  associated  with  this  habit. 

387.  Shoots.  —  A  well-developed  alfalfa  plant  has 
from  20  to  50  erect  or  suberect  leafy  branched  shoots, 
which  usually  grow  to  a  height  varying  from  18  to  36 
inches.  The  form  of  the  leaflets,  as  well  as  the  degree  of 
leafiness,  vary  considerably.  In  different  varieties  the 
stem  varies  from  very  hairy  to  nearly  smooth.  It  may 
be  either  green  or  purplish. 

Under  its  natural  conditions  of  environment  —  namely, 
a  dry  summer  -season  —  alfalfa  produces  but  a  single 
crop  of  stems,  these  drying  as  the  seeds  ripen.  In  a  humid 
climate,  however,  a  new  crop  of  shoots  begins  to  develop 
about  the  time  the  plant  reaches  full  bloom,  and  this 
militates  strongly  against  seed-production.  In  arid  cli- 
mates where  irrigation  is  practiced,  the  development  of 
the  new  shoots  can  be  controlled  by  supplying  or  with- 
holding water. 

There  seems  to  be  no  limit  to  the  number  of  crops  of 
shoots  an  alfalfa  plant  will  produce  under  favorable  con- 
ditions. Only  when  an  unfavorable  condition  of  cold  or 
drought  intervenes  does  growth  cease. 


ALFALFA  325 

Yellow  or  sickle  alfalfa  differs  markedly  from  true 
alfalfa,  in  that  the  shoots  are  usually  procumbent  or  pros- 
trate, and  a  second  crop  is  but  rarely  produced,  correlated 
probably  with  the  production  of  rootstocks. 

Variegated  alfalfa,  at  least  in  its  commercial  forms, 
behaves  much  like  ordinary  alfalfa,  but  the  shoots  are 
not  so  erect.  In  Germany,  according  to  Werner,  the 
new  growth  after  cutting  is  less  prompt  than  in  common 
alfalfa,  and  the  yield  less. 

Dillman  found  at  Bellefourche,  South  Dakota,  that  a 
well-grown  plant  of  alfalfa  will  produce  in  the  first  cutting 
134  to  192  grams  of  hay. 

388.  Relative  proportion  of  leaves,  stems  and  roots.  - 
Headden  in  Colorado  has  estimated  the  ratio  of  roots 
to  tops  to  be  as  1 : 1.3,  based  on  the  weights  obtained  from 
thirty-two  plants.  At  the  Delaware  Experiment  Station 
the  roots  and  tops  in  one  acre  were  determined  respectively 
as  1980  and  2267  pounds.  Ritthausen  in  Europe  found 
the  average  percentage  weight  of  leaves  to  stems  in  alfalfa 
hay  to  be  48  to  52.  Cottrell  in  Kansas  found  an  average 
relation  of  45  parts  leaves  to  55  of  stems.  In  very  leafy 
plants,  the  proportion  was  49  to  51 ;  and  in  very  stemmy 
individuals,  41  to  59. 

The  subject  has  been  further  studied  at  the  Utah  Ex- 
periment Station  by  Widtsoe,  who  determined  the  rela- 
tive percentage  of  leaves,  stems  and  flowers  at  nearly 
every  stage  of  growth  for  the  first,  second  and  third 
cuttings.  In  the  following  table  are  shown  the  data 
obtained  from  the  first  and  second  cuttings  made  when 
the  plants  were  in  bloom.  It  will  be  noted  that  the 
percentage  of  leaves  decreases  as  the  plants  grow 
older,  and  that  the  second  crop  is  less  stemmy  than  the 
first :  — 


326        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 


TABLE  SHOWING  PERCENTAGE  OF  LEAVES,  STEMS  AND  FLOW- 
ERS IN  DRY  ALFALFA  HARVESTED  AT  DIFFERENT  STAGES. 
UTAH  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


FIRST  CROP 

SECOND  CROP 

Date 
of 
Cutting 

Condition 
of  the 
Crop 

%  of 
Leaves 

%of 
Stems 

%  of 
Flow- 
ers 

Date 
of 

Cutting 

%  of 
Leaves 

%of 
Stems 

%of 
Flow- 
ers 

June  22 

Early 

38.4 

58.8 

2.8 

July  14 

43.7 

54.6 

1.7 

bloom 

June  29 

Medium 

35.2 

59.4 

5.4 

July  20 

42.4 

50.8 

6.8 

bloom 

July  7 

Full  flower 

33.9 

59.8 

6.3 

July  27 

36.8 

55.6 

7.6 

July  20 

Full  flower 

25.3 

67.4 

7.3 

Aug.  3 

35.1 

51.6 

13.3 

July  27 

Late  bloom 

22.7 

67.3 

10.0 

389.  Seed-bed.  —  Young  alfalfa  plants  are  but  poorly 
adapted  to  compete  with  weeds,  largely  from  the  fact 
that  the  early  growth  is  devoted  mainly  to  root  extension. 
On  this  account,  a  seed-bed  as  free  as  possible  from  weeds 
is  important,  and  it  is  also  desirable  that  it  be  well  settled 
and  moist.     Such  a  seed-bed  is  best  secured  by  fallowing 
the  land  for  six  weeks  or  more  before  sowing.     Or,  where 
the  alfalfa  is  sown  in  the  late  summer  or  early  fall,  a  clean 
hoed  crop,  such  as  potatoes  or  tomatoes,  may  in  some 
states  be  harvested  by  the  middle  of  August  and  leave  the 
land  in  excellent  shape  for  alfalfa. 

On  land  that  is  likely  to  drift,  special  care  is  necessary 
to  secure  a  stand  of  alfalfa.  In  such  cases,  nurse-crops 
are  seldom  practicable  on  account  of  insufficient  moisture. 
Drifting,  however,  may  be  prevented  by  scattering  straw 
or  coarse  manure  over  the  field,  or  the  alfalfa  may  be  sown 
in  the  old  stubble  of  corn  or  sorghum. 

390.  Inoculation.  —  Alfalfa  will  rarely  grow  to  maturity 


ALFALFA  327 

unless  the  roots  become  noduled.  Without  the  nodules 
the  young  plants  grow  but  three  to  six  inches  high,  grad- 
ually turn  yellow  and  die.  Natural  inoculation  is  rare 
except  in  regions  where  alfalfa  is  grown  extensively  or 
where  a  few  closely  related  plants  have  been  growing, 
including  melilotus,  bur  clover  and  yellow  trefoil.  The 
fact  that  the  nodule  germs  of  melilotus  will  inoculate  al- 
falfa was  first  proven  by  Hopkins.  There  is  no  positive 
proof  in  the  cases  of  bur  clover  and  yellow  trefoil,  but  field 
observations  leave  little  doubt  as  to  their  efficacy. 

The  nodules  of  alfalfa  are  small,  club-shaped  when 
simple,  but  often  branched- to  resemble  fingers.  Rarely 
there  are  enough  branches  to  form  a  globose  mass.  These 
nodules  are  all  on  the  smaller  roots,  and  are  nearly  always 
stripped  off  when  a  plant  is  pulled  out  of  the  ground. 

391.  Rate  of  seeding.  —  One  pound  of  common  alfalfa 
contains  about  220,000  seeds.  Therefore,  each  pound  of 
alfalfa  seed,  if  evenly  sown  on  an  acre  of  43,560  square 
feet,  would  average  over  five  seeds  to  the  square  foot. 
Alfalfa  fields  one  year  old  rarely  contain  more  than  twenty 
plants  to  the  square  foot  and  older  fields  usually  have 
less  than  ten.  In  the  United  States,  the  usual  rate  of 
seeding  alfalfa  to  the  acre  is  twenty  pounds  in  the  West 
and  twenty-five  to  thirty  pounds  in  the  East.  In  Europe, 
the  rate  is  variously  given  as  twenty-five  to  thirty-five 
pounds  to  the  acre.  Fair  stands  of  alfalfa  have  been 
secured  in  the  West  with  one  pound  of  seed  to  the  acre, 
and  good  stands  are  not  rarely  obtained  with  five  pounds 
an  acre. 

Westgate,  on  the  basis  of  thorough  inquiry  into  the 
practice  of  the  best  growers,  recommends  twenty-four 
to  twenty-eight  pounds  an  acre  for  the  Atlantic  and 
Southern  States ;  twenty  to  twenty-four  pounds  for  the 


328        FOE  AGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 

region  between  the  meridian  of  98°  and  the  Appalachian 
Mountains ;  five  to  fifteen  pounds  on  unirrigated,  semi- arid 
lands,  depending  on  the  amount  of  rainfall ;  fifteen  pounds 
on  irrigated  lands. 

Provided  a  good  stand  is  secured,  a  low  rate  of  seeding 
is  just  as  satisfactory  as  a  high  rate.  At  Lethbridge, 
Alberta,  alfalfa  was  seeded  at  the  following  rates  on  irri- 
gated land :  5,  10,  15,  20,  25,  30  pounds  an  acre.  The 
average  yields  for  3  years  were,  respectively,  10,273,  11,333, 
11,426,  11,220,  10,875  and  11,394  pounds  an  acre. 

392.  Time  of  seeding.  —  Alfalfa  is  sown  either  in  the 
spring  or  in  late  summer  or  early  fall,  depending  on  cli- 
matic and  other  conditions.  In  the  irrigated  lands  of  the 
West,  spring  seeding  is  most  frequently  practiced,  but  fall 
seeding  is  just  as  successful.  On  unirrigated  lands  in  the 
West,  the  time  is  usually  determined  by  the  moisture 
conditions  of  the  soil.  In  the  Great  Plains  region,  this 
is  usually  best  in  spring,  while  in  the  intermountain 
region,  spring  seeding  on  fallow  land  is  a  common  practice. 
In  states  with  very  cold  winters  spring  or  early  summer 
seeding  is  necessary,  as  fall-sown  stands  are  likely  to  be 
winter-killed.  Where  the  winters  are  not  severe,  and  mois- 
ture conditions  permit,  late  summer  or  early  fall  sowing 
is  preferable.  The  sowing  should  be  early  enough  to 
permit  the  alfalfa  plants  to  become  well  rooted  by  winter ; 
otherwise,  serious  losses  may  result  from  heaving;  and 
late  enough  so  that  summer  weeds  —  especially,  crab- 
grass  and  pigeon-grass  —  will  -  not  seriously  affect  the 
stand.  In  the  Northern  States,  winter-killing  is  the  most 
serious  difficulty  in  securing  a  stand  of  alfalfa,  while  south- 
ward, weeds  become  the  principal  factor.  From  an 
economic  standpoint,  fall  sowing  in  the  East  is  also  prefer- 
able, as  a  good  crop  is  secured  the  next  season,  while  with 


ALFALFA  329 

spring  sowing,  very  little  alfalfa  can  be .  harvested  the 
same  season. 

393.  Method  of  seeding.  —  Alfalfa  seeds  germinate  satis- 
factorily from  all  depths  up  to  two  inches  under  satis- 
factory conditions  of  moisture.     At  a  greater  depth  all 
of  the  seedlings  will  not  reach  the  surface.     In  field  prac- 
tice, the  aim  is  to  sow  the  seed  from  one-half  to  one  inch 
deep  in  ordinary  soils,  but  under  droughty  conditions  or 
in  sandy  soils  one  and  one-half  inches  is  safer. 

The  seed  is  variously  sown  by  hand  or  by  using  dif- 
ferent types  of  seeders.  A  grain  drill  is  the  most  economical 
implement  to  use  where  the  planting  is  extensive.  In 
this  case  the  amount  of  seed  sown  may  be  regulated  by 
the  use  of  leather  thongs  to  reduce  the  feed,  or  by  mixing 
the  seed  with  bran  or  other  inert  substance. 

394.  Nurse-crops.  —  The  use  of  a  nurse-crop  for  alfalfa 
is  to  be  recommended  only  in  regions  or  on  soils  where  but 
little  difficulty  is  experienced  in  securing  a  stand.     It  is 
doubtful  whether  a  nurse-crop  is  ever  beneficial  to  the 
alfalfa,  but  on  the  irrigated  lands  of  the  West,  alfalfa  may 
be  sown  with  a  nurse-crop,   and  a  good  stand  usually 
secured.     Spring-sown  barley  is  used  most  often,  as  the 
nurse ;  oats  less  frequently.     Barley  draws  less  heavily 
on  the  soil  moisture. 

In  the  humid  parts  of  the  United  States,  occasional 
examples  are  found  where  success  has  been  obtained  by 
sowing  alfalfa  with  spring  oats  or  barley.  This,  how- 
ever, involves  sowing  the  alfalfa  seed  early  in  spring,  an 
unfavorable  time  on  account  of  weeds,  besides  increasing 
the  chance  of  failure  from  drought.  Seeding  in  fall  with 
winter  wheat,  oats  or  rye  postpones  the  sowing  beyond 
the  most  favorable  time  to  insure  ample  growth  of  the 
alfalfa  before  winter.  In  view  of  the  care  usually  neces- 


330        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR    CULTURE 

sary  to  secure  a  stand  of  alfalfa  in  humid  regions,  the  use 
of  a  nurse-crop  under  such  conditions  is  inadvisable  as  a 
rule. 

When,  however,  experience  has  shown  that  all  the 
soil  conditions  are  favorable,  spring  seeding  with  a  nurse- 
crop  gives  good  results.  This  is  especially  true  in  the 
northern  tier  of  states  and  in  Ontario.  At  the  Ontario 
Agricultural  College  just  as  good  results  were  secured 
with  a  nurse-crop  of  barley,  seeding  one  bushel  to  the 
acre,  as  where  no  barley  was  used.  In  an  experiment 
comparing  wheat,  barley  and  oats  as  nurse-crops,  wheat 
was  the  best,  but  not  much  superior  to  barley,  while  oats 
was  decidedly  the  poorest,  all  measured  by  the  resulting 
yields  of  alfalfa  for  2  years.  In  a  few  instances,  success- 
ful stands  of  alfalfa  have  been  secured  by  sowing  between 
the  rows  of  corn  at  the  time  of  the  last  cultivation.  With- 
out very  favorable  moisture  conditions,  success  with  such 
sowing  is  problematical. 

395.  Clipping.  —  Some  writers  have  recommended  clip- 
ping young  alfalfa,  when  three  or  four  inches  high,  with 
the  idea  that  this  treatment  would  strengthen  the  sub- 
sequent growth  in  a  manner  analogous  to  the  pruning 
of  trees.  The  cases  are,  however,  not  comparable,  inas- 
much as  there  is  no  reserve  store  of  food  in  the  ?lfalfa 
plant,  as  there  is  in  the  branches  of  trees.  Clipping  is 
never  justifiable  unless  weeds  threaten  to  smother  cut  the 
young  alfalfa.  Exact  data  are  wanting  to  show  the  effect 
of  clipping  on  yields.  In  one  experiment  at  Pullman, 
Washington,  the  effects  of  clipping  could  easily  be  observed 
for  two  years,  the  clipped  plot  showing  weaker  growth. 

At  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station,  three  plots  of  alfalfa 
were  sown  June  27.  One  of  these  was  clipped  September  9, 
when  12  to  18  inches  high,  and  about  15  per  cent  in 


ALFALFA  331 

the  second,  October  16,  when  the  blossoms  were  mostly 
dried  up ;  the  third  was  left  uncut.  In  the  spring  the 
undipped  plot  started  off  with  a  noticeably  stronger 
growth  than  the  others.  It  produced  a  yield  in  three 
cuttings  522  pounds  greater  than  the  plot  clipped  Octo- 
ber 16,  and  1376  pounds  greater  than  that  clipped  Sep- 
tember 9.  The  September  clipped  plot  was  apparently 
injured  by  the  weed  growth  that  took  place  after  clipping. 

At  Lyngby,  Denmark,  the  effect  of  cutting  spring-sown 
alfalfa  the  same  year  it  was  seeded  was  tested.  It  was 
found  that  the  first  season's  crop  plus  that  of  the  second 
season  was  not  equal  to  that  of  the  second  year's  crop 
alone  on  plots  that  had  not  been  cut  the  first  year. 

396.  Winter-killing.  —  The  injury  or  destruction  of 
alfalfa  in  winter  is  associated  with  various  factors.  Among 
the  most  important  are  the  variety ;  the  actual  minimum 
temperature ;  the  amount  of  snow  cover ;  the  thickness 
of  the  stand ;  the  amount  of  moisture  in  the  soil ;  the 
condition  of  dormancy ;  alternate  freezing  and  thawing ; 
and  particularly  the  condition  of  the  plants  at  the  begin- 
ning of  winter. 

The  most  cold-resistant  varieties  of  alfalfa  are  Grimm 
and  strains  of  Turkestan  and  ordinary  alfalfa  which  have 
been  grown  under  severe  winter  conditions,  as  in  Mon- 
tana and  the  Dakotas,  for  many  years.  In  all  these, 
natural  selection  has  eliminated  the  non-hardy  individuals. 

Injury  to  alfalfa  by  cold  alone  is  rarely  serious  unless 
the  temperature  falls  to  —  20°  Fahrenheit  or  lower.  In 
North  Dakota  all  but  the  most  hardy  varieties,  when 
planted  in  rows  and  not  protected  by  snow,  showed  a 
loss  of  80  per  cent  or  more  in  a  winter  where  the  minimum 
temperature  was  -  31°  Fahrenheit.  In  broadcasted 
stands,  however,  the  loss  was  much  less.  A  thick  stand 


332       FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

probably  provides  a  somewhat  higher  soil  temperature, 
and  also  reduces  the  percentage  of  soil  moisture. 

Alfalfa  is,  however,  successfully  grown  in  regions  where 
a  minimum  of  —  40°  Fahrenheit,  or  even  lower,  is  not 
uncommon,  as  in  Minnesota,  North  Dakota  and  Montana. 
This  is  doubtless  due  in  part  to  protection  afforded  by 
snow. 

Young  alfalfa  is  more  often  winter -killed  by  cold  than 
older  plants,  but  there  are  no  accurate  data  as  to  their 
relative  cold  endurance.  It  sometimes  happens  that 
alfalfa  —  especially  in  low  spots  —  becomes  covered  for 
a  considerable  period  by  a  sheeting  of  ice.  This  usually 
kills  the  plants. 

The  degree  of  dormancy  of  the  plants  also  affects  their 
ability  to  resist  cold.  It  is  well  known  that  fruit  trees 
are  much  less  likely  to  be  injured  by  cold  when  the  twigs 
have  become  fully  hardened  and  dormant  and  remain  so 
during  the  winter.  In  the  irrigated  regions,  instances 
have  occurred  where  a  portion  of  the  orchard  was  irri- 
gated late  in  the  season  so  that  the  trees  did  not  become 
fully  dormant.  These  were  winter-killed  when  adjoining 
trees  of  the  same  variety  not  irrigated  escaped  injury. 
For  the  same  reason,  warm  weather  in  late  winter  which 
starts  growth  in  the  trees  is  likely  to  be  disastrous  if  fol- 
lowed by  more  cold.  The  behavior  of  alfalfa  seems  exactly 
comparable  to  that  of  fruit  trees,  in  that  dormant  plants 
are  much  more  resistant  to  cold  and  that  high  soil  moisture 
tends  to  retard  dormancy.  Fortier  cites  the  experience 
of  a  farmer  at  Chateau,  Montana,  who  irrigated  late  in 
the  fall  a  portion  of  a  field  of  alfalfa  two  years  old.  This 
winter-killed,  while  the  unirrigated  portion  was  unharmed. 

Peruvian  and  Arabian  alfalfas  are  varieties  which  con- 
tinue to  grow  at  temperatures  lower  than  that  which 


ALFALFA 

induces  dormancy  in  most  varieties.  This  late  production 
of  tender  shoots  is  probably  the  principal  reason  why  these 
varieties  succumb  so  easily  to  winter  cold. 

Alfalfa  sometimes  dies  in  very  dry  winters  in  Colorado 
and  other  western  states  apparently  from  lack  of  sufficient 
soil  moisture.  To  remedy  this,  late  fall  irrigating  would 
be  necessary,  though  this  involves  an  increased  danger  of 
injury  by  winter  cold. 

Young  alfalfa  is  most  frequently  injured  or  destroyed 
by  the  heaving  of  the  soil  caused  by  alternate  freezing  and 
thawing.  This  results  in  the  plants  being  raised  out  of 
the  ground  so  that  the  young  tap  root  may  be  exposed 
to  a  length  of  2  to  5  inches.  It  is  partly  on  this  account 
that  fall  sowings  should  be  early,  as  the  larger  the  root 
development  the  less  apt  are  the  plants  to  be  heaved. 
Heaving  is  especially  likely  to  occur  when  the  soil  contains 
much  moisture,  and  for  this  reason  is  far  more  common  in 
clayey  than  in  sandy  soils. 

Any  conditions  that  do  not  permit  the  seedlings  to 
make  a  good  healthy  growth  before  the  beginning  of 
winter,  will  tend  to  increase  winter-killing.  A  top 
growth  of  4  to  6  inches  is  considered  good,  but  even 
more  is  desirable. 

397.  Time  to  cut  for  hay.  —  The  important  factors  that 
determine  the  best  time  to  cut  alfalfa  for  hay  are  the  effect 
on  the  succeeding  cutting,  and  the  relation  of  stage  of 
maturity  to  feeding  value.  Both  of  these  considerations 
are  necessarily  affected  by  the  probability  of  good  haying 
weather,  as  neither  a  somewhat  superior  quality  or  a 
lessened  succeeding  cutting  would  compensate  for  a  loss 
or  serious  injury  to  the  crop  at  hand. 

The  general  practice  in  America  is  to  cut  for  hay  shortly 
after  the  first  blossoms  appear.  After  this  time  the  stems 


334        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

become  more  woody,  and  the  leaflets  are  more  likely  to 
fall  off.  In  Europe,  Stebler  and  Schroter  recommend 
that  it  be  cut  some  time  before  flowering. 

In  humid  regions,  alfalfa  sometimes  blooms  but  spar- 
ingly. In  such  climates  the  best  rule  is  to  cut  for  hay  as 
soon  as  new  shoots  appear  at  the  crown.  If  cutting  is 
delayed  longer,  the  new  shoots  are  apt  to  be  cut  off,  thus 
injuring  the  second  crop.  This  difficulty  does  not  arise 
during  periods  of  drought,  and  in  arid  regions  can  be  con- 
trolled by  withholding  irrigation. 

Late  cuttings  may  also  be  at  the  expense  of  total  yield. 
At  the  Utah  Experiment  Station,  three  plots  of  alfalfa 
during  five  seasons  were  cut  respectively  when  the  first 
blossoms  appeared ;  when  in  full  bloom ;  and  when  half 
the  blossoms  had  fallen.  The  first  two  plots  produced 
three  cuttings  annually,  the  third  but  two,  except  one 
unusually  favorable  season  when  three  were  harvested. 
The  average  acre  yields  for  the  three  plots  were  respec- 
tively, 4553,  3554  and  1776  pounds,  or  a  relative  propor- 
tion of  100  :  78  :  39. 

At  the  Kansas  Experiment  Station,  four  plots  of  J  acre 
each  duplicated  were  cut  respectively  when  in  first  bloom, 
in  one-tenth  bloom,  in  one-half  bloom  and  in  full  bloom. 
The  respective  acre  yields  for  the  first  cutting  were 
1.36,  1.76,  1.81  and  2.04  tons;  for  the  whole  season, 
4.69,  5.35,  4.52  and  5.99  tons.  In  this  case  the  late 
cuttings  gave  both  the  greatest  yield  to  the  cutting  and 
the  largest  total. 

The  question  of  the  best  time  to  cut  alfalfa  for  hay 
has  also  been  much  studied  from  the  viewpoint  of  chemical 
composition  and  digestibility.     Thus,   Willard,  in  Kan- 
sas,   compared    alfalfa     hay    cut    at     three     stages  - 
namely,  when  about  10  per  cent  in  bloom;    when  about 


ALFALFA  335 

half  in  bloom;  and  in  full  bloom.  The  first  mentioned 
was  found  "  richer  in  ash,  protein  and  fat  than  that  pro- 
duced by  later  cuttings,  while  the  crude  fiber  and  the  nitro- 
gen-free extract  increase  in  percentage  as  the  plant 
matures." 

Harcourt,  at  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College,  concludes 
that  "  a  much  larger  amount  of  digestible  matter  was 
obtained  by  cutting  when  the  plants  were  about  one-third 
in  bloom  than  by  cutting  either  two  weeks  earlier  or  two 
weeks  later."  Snyder  and  Hummel  in  Minnesota  state 
that  "  alfalfa  for  hay  should  be  cut  when  one-third  of  the 
blossoms  have  appeared  because  at  this  stage  it  will  yield 
the  largest  amounts  of  the  several  nutrients  in  the  most 
valuable  forms."  Widtsoe  in  Utah  holds  "  that  to  insure 
a  large  yield  of  dry  matter  and  the  largest  amounts  of 
albuminoids,  lucern  should  be  cut  not  earlier  than  the 
period  of  medium  bloom  and  not  much  later  than  the 
period  of  first  full  flower.  This  in  most  cases  will  be  two 
or  three  weeks  after  the  flower  buds  begin  to  appear.  It 
will  be  a  more  serious  error  to  cut  too  early  than  to 
cut  too  late."  Headden  in  Colorado  concludes  from 
his  investigations  of  alfalfa  "  that  the  best  general- 
purpose  hay  is  obtained  by  cutting  it  when  it  is  in  full 
bloom." 

The  object  for  which  the  hay  is  cut  is  also  a  factor  to 
be  considered.  For  horses  it  is  generally  held  that  alfalfa 
cut  in  full  bloom  is  best,  as  earlier  cuttings  are  too  laxative. 
This  conclusion  is  also  reached  by  the  Kansas  Experiment 
Station,  as  the  result  of  extensive  horse  feeding  experi- 
ments. Horses,  however,  frequently  eat  only  the  alfalfa 
stems,  leaving  much  of  the  leaves  in  the  bottom  of  the 
manger. 

Alfalfa  straw  or  hay  from  ripe  alfalfa  must  be  fed 


336        FORAGE   PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 

very  cautiously.  Werner  states  that  it  is  dangerous  to 
feed  alfalfa  hay  containing  ripe  seeds  to  horses,  as  the 
seeds  are  apt  to  cause  laryngeal  trouble. 

At  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College,  a  valuable  cow 
died  of  stoppage  of  the  bowels  after  being  fed  on  ripened 
alfalfa.  The  ball  of  indigestible  fiber  found  in  the  intestine 
was  supposed  to  be  formed  from  the  alfalfa  eaten.  A  sheep 
also  was  affected  in  a  similar  way,  but  recovered. 

398.  Number    of    cuttings.  —  The    number    of    times 
alfalfa  can  be  cut  for  hay  depends  mainly  on  the  length 
of  the  season ;   secondly,  on  the  moisture  supply.     Under 
the  most  favorable  conditions,  a  cutting  can  be  made 
every  thirty  days.     As  many  as  nine  cuttings  of  ordinary 
alfalfa,  and  twelve  of  Arabian  alfalfa  have  been  secured 
in  a  year  in  the  Imperial  Valley,  California.     Over  most 
of  the  irrigated  region,  from  three  to  five  cuttings  are 
obtained.     Without  irrigation,  frequently  only  one  crop 
can  be  harvested  in  the  drier  states,  but  three  cuttings 
are  the  rule  wherever  corn  will  mature  and  moisture  con- 
ditions are  favorable.     At  high  altitudes  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains   where   the   season  permits   of   but   a   single 
cutting  of  alfalfa,  red  clover  is  preferable,  as  it  will  make 
its  growth  in  cooler  weather. 

399.  Quality  of  different  cuttings.  —  The  first  cutting 
of  alfalfa  is  as  a  rule  coarser  than  the  later  cuttings,  and 
in  some  markets  this  has  an  effect  on  its  price.     From  a 
chemical  standpoint  there  is  very  little  difference  between 
the  first  and  the  later  cuttings. 

At  the  Utah  Experiment  Station  alfalfa  from  three 
cuttings  grown  on  light  bench  lands  was  fed  to  milch 
cows  to  determine  their  relative  value  in  the  production 
of  butter  fat.  The  opinion  of  dairymen  in  Utah  is  that 
the  second  cutting  of  alfalfa  hay  is  far  superior  to  the  first 


ALFALFA  337 

cutting  and  somewhat  better  than  the  third  cutting.  The 
experiments  were  carried  on  two  seasons  with  three  lots 
of  5  dairy  cows  each,  each  lot  being  fed  for  4  weeks  with 
each  cutting  of  hay  after  a  preliminary  feeding  of  25  days. 
The  cows  both  years  ate  most  of  the  third  crop,  followed 
in  order  by  the  first  and  the  second  crops.  The  total 
amounts  of  butter  fat  produced  were,  respectively,  707, 
687  and  675  pounds  for  the  first,  second  and  third  cuttings 
in  order.  On  the  whole  the  experiment  does  not  indi- 
cate any  marked  difference  in  feeding  value  of  the  three 
cuttings. 

400.  Irrigation.  —  A    large    proportion    of    the    alfalfa 
grown  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  is  produced  under 
irrigation  in  the  semi-arid  regions.     The  general  practice 
of  growers  is  to  use  far  more  water  than  is  necessary.     This 
is  harmful,  as  in  time  it  brings  about  a  water-logged  condi- 
tion of  the  soil,  which  in  itself  is  directly  harmful  to  the 
alfalfa,  but  indirectly  far  more  so,  as  it  causes  soluble 
alkali  salts  to  rise  and  accumulate  near  the  surface.     On 
this  account  it  is  best  'to  apply  only  as  much  water  as  will 
result  in  the  production  of    satisfactory   crops.       This 
amount  varies  principally  according  to  the  character  of 
the  soil.     To  a  less  degree  it  is  affected  by  the  amount  of 
evaporation  and  transpiration,  these  increasing  with  high 
temperature,  dryness  of   the  air  and  wind   movements. 
The  optimum  amount  of  water  required  needs,  therefore, 
to  be  determined  in  each  locality  by  comparative  plot 
trials. 

401.  Time   to   apply  irrigating   water.  —  In    irrigation 
farming,  alfalfa  is  practically  always  irrigated  as  soon  as 
each  crop  is  removed  from  the  field.     Additional  irrigations 
are  required  in  many  places,  the  number  depending  on 
both  soil  and  climatic  conditions.     The  best  guide  is  to 


338        FOE  AGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR    CULTURE 

watch  carefully  the  condition  of  the  plants.  When  the 
water  supply  becomes  too  low,  the  growth  is  checked  and 
the  leaves  become  darker  and  duller  in  color  than  those 
of  vigorously  growing  plants.  The  wilting  of  the  leaves 
is  also  indicative  of  insufficient  moisture,  especially  if  it 
occur  before  or  after  the  heat  of  midday.  Fortier  also 
recommends  that  the  soil  at  a  depth  of  about  6  inches  be 
examined.  If  it  will  readily  form  a  ball  when  pressed 
between  the  hands  and  retain  its  form,  there  is  sufficient 
moisture  present ;  but  if  the  ball  falls  apart  when  the 
pressure  is  removed,  irrigation  is  needed. 

The  number  of  irrigations  a  year  when  water  is  avail- 
able varies  from  4  in  Montana  to  as  many  as  12  in  Ari- 
zona and  California.  The  number  depends  upon  various 
factors,  especially  the  depth  and  character  of  the  soil, 
the  depth  of  the  water  table,  number  of  cuttings  and  such 
climatic  factors  as  temperature,  rainfall,  humidity  and 
wind  movements. 

In  localities  where  water  is  abundant  only  in  the  spring 
and  early  summer,  it  is  the  common  practice  to  water 
more  freely  and  more  frequently  at  that  time,  as 
this  tends  to  lessen  the  amount  needed  later  in  the 
summer. 

402.  Winter  irrigation.  —  In  parts  of  the  West,  where 
the  water  supply  happens  to  be  abundant  in  winter  and 
scant  or  even  lacking  in  summer,  fields  are  irrigated  in 
winter  when  the  plants  are  dormant.  This  is  especially 
practical  in  regions  where  the  winters  are  mild.  The  prin- 
cipal object  is  to  conserve  water  which  would  otherwise 
be  wasted,  the  soil  retaining  a  large  amount  and  thus 
lessening  the  water  required  during  the  summer.  Even 
where  no  water  is  available  in  summer,  one  good  cutting 
is  in  many  places  obtained  as  the  result  of  winter  irriga- 


ALFALFA 


339 


tion.  A  second  advantage  is  that  winter-killing  from  exces- 
sive dryness  of  the  soil  is  prevented.  Where  the  winters 
are  severe,  however,  too  great  an  amount  of  soil  moisture 
is  conducive  to  winter-killing. 

403.  Relation  of  yield  to  water  supply.  —  The  actual 
water  required  in  irrigating  alfalfa  depends  largely  on  the 
permeability  of  the  soil,  but  temperature,  humidity  and 
wind  are  also  factors  of  importance.  Fortier  states  that 
the  larger  number  of  western  alfalfa  fields  are  irrigated 
annually  with  2.5  to  4.5  feet  of  water,  but  in  quite  a 
large  number  of  cases  the  amount  used  would  cover  the 
field  in  depths  ranging  from  6  to  15  feet. 

While  larger  yields  are  often  obtained  by  using  greater 
quantities  of  water,  such  use  is  wasteful  and  apt  to  be 
injurious  to  the  land  or  to  surrounding  lands  by  causing 
waterlogging  and  the  consequent  rise  of  alkali. 

Fortier  secured  the  following  results  at  the  Montana 
Experiment  Station :  — 


PLAT 
NUMBER 

DEPTH  OF 
IRRIGATION 

DEPTH  OP 
RAINFALL 

TOTAL  DEPTH 

YIELD  TO  THE  ACRE 
OF  CURED  ALFALFA 

Feet 

Feet 

Feet 

Tons 

1 

0.5 

0.7 

1.20 

4.61 

2 

0.0 

0.7 

0.70 

1.95 

3 

1.0 

0.7 

1.70 

4.42 

4 

1.5 

0.7 

2.20 

3.75 

5 

2.0 

0.7 

2.70 

6.35 

6 

2.5 

0.7 

3.20 

7.20 

7 

3.0 

0.7 

3.70 

7.68 

The  following  yields  are  reported  from  the  Utah  Experi- 
ment Station,  using  different  quantities  of  irrigation 
water :  — 


840        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 


INCHES  OF  WATER 
APPLIED 

10.0 

15.0 

20.0 

25.0 

30.0 

50.0 

First  Crop 

3567 

3194 

3759 

3790 

3326 

3795 

Second  crop     . 

4077 

2775 

3193 

3245 

3338 

4016 

Third  crop 

2240 

1577 

2145 

2319 

2176 

3002 

Total  yield 

9884 

7546 

9097 

9354 

8840 

10813 

Yield  for  each 

inch  of  irri- 

gation water 

988 

503 

455 

374 

295 

216 

(Quantities  of  water  used  are  expressed  in  acre-inches, 
of  alfalfa  are  expressed  in  pounds  to  the  acre.) 


Yields 


404.  Care  of  an  alfalfa  field.  —  After  a  good  stand  of 
alfalfa  has  been  secured,  its  subsequent  treatment  —  apart 
from  harvesting,  and  in  dry  regions,  irrigating  —  should 
be  mainly  to  hold  weeds  in  check.  The  worst  weeds  that 
invade  alfalfa  fields  are  blue-grass  in  the  north,  and  Ber- 
muda-grass and  crab-grass  southward.  Other  weeds  are 
held  largely  in  check  by  the  regular  mowings,  but  the  weedy 
grasses  can  be  eradicated  only  by  careful  harrowing. 

Blue-grass  and  Bermuda  are  both  perennials,  and  grad- 
ually kill  out  the  alfalfa  as  the  grass  sod  extends.  Usually 
this  requires  three  or  four  years.  Crab-grass  grows  most 
luxuriantly  in  moist  hot  weather,  under  which  condi- 
tions alfalfa  languishes,  so  that  crab-grass  often  com- 
pletely destroys  an  alfalfa  field  in  the  Southern  States  in 
a  single  season. 

The  best  implement  to  destroy  grass  in  alfalfa  is  the 
spike-tooth  harrow,  especially  the  form  with  broad  chisel- 
shaped  teeth.  Where  the  ground  is  very  hard,  it  is  neces- 
sary first  to  use  a  disk  harrow.  This  implement  often 
splits  up  the  crowns  of  the  alfalfa  plants,  but  this  injury 


ALFALFA 


341 


is  ordinarily  not  serious.  It  certainly  is  not  beneficial 
as  some  writers  have  claimed.  The  disk  harrow  alone  is 
not  effective  against  blue-grass,  but  needs  to  be  followed 
with  the  spike-tooth. 

When  grass  is  troublesome,  it  is  commonly  recommended 
that  alfalfa  should  be  thoroughly  harrowed  after  each 
cutting.  By  this  means,  the  life  of  the  field  may  be  ex- 
tended several  years,  at  least  in  some  localities. 


FIG.  34.  —  An  implement  for  harrowing  fields  of  alfalfa. 

At  the  Kansas  Experiment  Station  a  plot  disked  every 
year  for  3  years  yielded  at  the  average  rate  of  9922  pounds 
an  acre,  while  one  not  disked  gave  a  yield  of  10,269 
pounds. 

405.  Alfalfa  in  cultivated  rows.  —  Alfalfa  planted  in 
rows  has  often  been  grown  in  an  experimental  way  in 
humid  regions  where  broadcasting  is  unsuccessful  on  ac- 
count of  weeds.  Such  a  type  of  cultivation  has  never 
come  into  actual  practice  in  such  regions,  mainly  because 
other  leguminous  crops  succeed  in  spite  of  weeds. 


342         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

In  some  semi-arid  regions,  notably  India  and  Algeria; 
alfalfa  for  hay  is  grown  in  this  manner  both  with  and 
without  irrigation.  In  these  countries,  however,  labor  is 
much  cheaper  than  in  America. 

Thus  far  the  culture  of  alfalfa  in  rows  in  the  United 
States  has  been  mainly  with  the  idea  of  producing  seed 
crops.  The  success  already  attained  leads  to  the  belief 
that  the  method  will  come  into  wide  use.  The  area 
particularly  adapted  to  this  method  of  seed-production 
is  that  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  where  the  annual 
rainfall  lies  between  14  and  25  inches,  and  west  of  the  same 
mountains,  where  the  precipitation  is  between  12  and  20 
inches.  Such  conditions  supply  sufficient  moisture  if  the 
alfalfa  is  planted  thinly  in  rows  30  to  40  inches  apart  and 
cultivated  frequently.  Furthermore,  it  is  under  just 
such  conditions  of  drought  that  seed  setting  is  favored. 
Irrigable  lands  cannot  be  economically  utilized  in  this 
manner,  as  they  will  produce  3  to  5  cuttings  of  hay  from 
broadcasted  alfalfa,  while  the  unirrigable  lands  rarely 
produce  more  than  one  such  cutting. 

Fairchild  has  described  an  interesting  method  of  alfalfa 
culture  in  Algeria,  where  the  alfalfa  is  grown  in  double 
rows  40  inches  apart,  and  every  second  year  a  crop  of 
durum  wheat  is  grown  between  the  rows. 

406.  Alfalfa  in  mixtures.  —  Alfalfa  is  not  commonly 
employed  in  grass  mixtures,  mainly  because  the  especial 
peculiarity  of  the  crop  —  namely,  its  ability  to  produce 
two  or  more  cuttings  —  is  thereby  impaired. 

In  humid  regions,  alfalfa  as  a  rule  does  not  withstand 
the  crowding  of  other  grasses  such  as  are  usually  employed 
in  mixtures.  It  is  not  so  well  adapted  for  this  purpose  as 
is  red  clover. 

In  irrigated  regions,  especially  at  high  altitudes,  where 


ALFALFA  343 

timothy  is  an  important  crop,  the  practice  of  growing  it 
in  mixture  with  alfalfa  is  increasing.  This  permits,  in 
many  places,  the  cutting  of  a  second  crop  of  hay,  which 
is  largely  composed  of  alfalfa.  Alfalfa  as  ordinarily  cut 
is  ready  two  weeks  sooner  than  timothy,  but  additional 
maturity  makes  it  better  feed  for  horses.  Furthermore, 
experience  has  shown  that  when  mixed  with  timothy, 
the  stems  are  more  slender,  and  there  is  no  objectionable 
woodiness. 

407.  Alfalfa  in  rotations.  —  On  account  of  its  long  life, 
as  well  as  the  value  of  an  established  field,  alfalfa  is  not 
much  used  in  regular  rotations.  The  almost  universal 
custom  is  to  retain  a  field  in  alfalfa  as  long  as  it  continues 
to  produce  satisfactory  crops.  In  Colorado,  however, 
alfalfa  is  used  in  rotation  with  potatoes,  the  alfalfa  com- 
monly being  sown  with  a  nurse-crop  of  oats  and  usually 
allowed  to  stand  two  seasons. 

In  Europe  the  idea  prevails  that  land  should  not  again 
be  sown  to  alfalfa  until  after  a  period  of  rest  equal  to  the 
time  the  land  was  in  alfalfa,  or  somewhat  less  if  there  is 
a  deep  and  good  subsoil.  American  experience  has  not 
as  yet  disclosed  any  need  of  such  practice.  It  is,  how- 
ever, desirable,  after  a  field  of  alfalfa  has  been  plowed, 
to  follow  it  with  one  intertilled  crop  and  one  of  small 
grains,  as  this  permits  the  land  to  be  cleaned  of  weeds, 
and  also  secures  the  benefit  of  the  fertilizing  value  of  the 
alfalfa. 

If  alfalfa  is  again  to  be  sown  on  the  land,  the  interven- 
ing crops  should  be  planned  to  permit  alfalfa  being  sown 
at  the  best  time.  On  farms  where  experience  has  shown 
that  alfalfa  can  be  successfully  grown,  it  is  most  economi- 
cally seeded  after  a  cultivated  crop  that  can  be  removed 
in  time  enough  to  sow  the  alfalfa.  Among  such  crops 


344        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

are  potatoes  and  sweet  corn.  Certain  broadcasted  crops 
will  also  leave  the  land  in  good  shape  for  alfalfa,  among 
them  field  peas  and  cowpeas. 

408.  Pasturing  alfalfa.  —  Alfalfa  may  be  pastured  to 
all  kinds  of  live  stock,  but  this  is  rarely  done  in  regions 
where  the  hay  commands  a  good  price,  excepting  when  the 
field  has  become  weedy.  In  the  eastern  United  States 
pasturing  will  nearly  always  result  in  great  injury  to  the 
stand  of  alfalfa,  but  in  the  West  this  difficulty  is  not  so 
serious.  It  is  best  not  to  pasture  alfalfa  during  the  first 
two  seasons,  and  even  old  fields  cannot  be  pastured  heavily 
without  injuring  the  stand. 

Hogs  are  most  often  employed  in  pasturing  alfalfa  and 
injure  it  less  than  other  live  stock.  Where,  however,  the 
soil  is  loose,  it  is  well  to  ring  their  noses  to  prevent  rooting. 
Horses  and  sheep  are  most  injurious  to  alfalfa  plants,  as 
they  eat  the  young  buds  from  the  crowns.  Both  sheep 
and  cattle  are  likely  to  become  affected  with  bloat  or 
hoven  when  upon  alfalfa  pasture.  This  danger  is  appar- 
ently lessened  by  not  allowing  the  animals  to  go  on  the 
pasture  when  the  alfalfa  is  wet  with  rain  or  dew.  Neither 
should  hungry  cattle  be  turned  in  alfalfa  so  that  they  will 
gorge  themselves,  as  this  is  particularly  likely  to  cause 
bloat.  The  danger  is  always  present,  however,  and  so 
large  that  cautious  farmers  do  not  consider  alfalfa  a  proper 
plant  for  pasturing  valuable  animals. 

Fields  of  mixed  alfalfa  and  grass  are  much  better  for 
pasturing  cattle  and  sheep  than  alfalfa  alone,  as  such  a 
mixture  is  much  less  likely  to  cause  bloating.  Orchard- 
grass  is  well  adapted  to  such  a  mixture  in  the  more  humid 
states ;  and  brome-grass  in  the  region  west  of  the  longitude 
96°  and  north  of  the  latitude  37°.  Kentucky  blue-grass 
should  not  be  sown,  as  it  tends  to  crowd  out  the  alfalfa, 


ALFALFA  345 

Eventually  it  invades  many  fields,  and  when  this  is  the  case 
the  mixture  makes  fine  pasturage. 

Few  data  are  available  as  to  the  carrying  capacity  of 
alfalfa  pastures.  In  good  alfalfa  sections,  a  field  will  sup- 
port an  average  of  ten  hogs  to  the  acre  throughout  the 
grazing  season.  Fields  should  never  be  closely  pastured 
to  the  end  of  the  season,  but  the  animals  should  be  removed 
in  time  to  allow  a  growth  of  6  inches  or  more  before  the 
beginning  of  winter. 

409.  Use   as  a  soiling  crop.  —  Alfalfa  is  an  excellent 
soiling  crop,  especially  for  dairy  cows.     Only  one  precau- 
tion needs  to  be  taken ;  namely,  not  to  cut  the  same  field 
more  often  than  it  would  be  cut  for  hay,  as  otherwise  the 
plants  are  greatly  weakened  and  often  succumb.     Such 
an  injurious  result  is  not  uncommonly  seen  in  alfalfa  near 
dairy  barns,  which,  on  account  of  its  convenience,  has 
been  cut  too  frequently.     No  cases  are  on  record  of  cut 
alfalfa  ever  having  caused  bloating. 

410.  Alfalfa    silage.  —  Alfalfa    alone    has    not    given 
very  satisfactory  results   as   silage   in  the  few  tests  re- 
ported.    This  method  of  preservation  is  rarely  necessary 
in  the  West,  where  most  of  the  alfalfa  is  grown.     In  the 
East,  however,  ensiling  the  crop  would  be  a  means  of 
saving   it    during  weather    unfavorable    for   hay  curing. 
One  difficulty  encountered  in  making  good  silage  from 
alfalfa  is  to  secure  sufficiently  dense  packing  to  prevent 
spoiling.     Chopping   the    alfalfa   reduces   the   loss   from 
this    cause.     Much    additional    investigation    regarding 
the  preservation  of  alfalfa  as  silage  is  needed. 

At  the  Utah  Experiment  Station  there  was  placed  in 
one  silo  14,165  pounds  red  clover,  4020  pounds  sweet 
clover,  8620  pounds  alfalfa  and  3720  pounds  Hungarian 
millet,  a  total  of  30,525  pounds.  The  total  silage  taken 


346        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

out  was  19,599  pounds,  a  loss  of  35.7  per  cent,  and  besides 
7007  pounds  were  spoiled.  Neither  the  cut  nor  the  whole 
alfalfa  silage  proved  satisfactory  in  two  years'  trial. 

411.  Alfalfa    meal.  —  In   recent    years,    finely   ground 
alfalfa  has  been  placed  on  the  market  under  the  name  of 
alfalfa  meal.     The  best  quality  of  meal  is  bright  pea  green 
in  color,  as  this  indicates  that  it  has  been  made  from  the 
best  quality  of  hay.     The  product  is  very  convenient  to 
use  in  mixed  feeds,  as  there  is  practically  no  waste  such 
as  occurs  with  hay.     It  usually  commands  a  price  about 
25  per  cent  higher  than  prime  alfalfa  hay. 

The  ground  material  contains  no  more  nutriment  than 
hay  of  the  same  quality,  and  its  digestibility  is  probably 
not  increased  materially.  The  justification  for  its  use  lies 
in  the  convenience  in  feeding,  and  the  avoidance  of  waste. 

412.  Seed  production.  —  Alfalfa  seed  is  rarely  grown 
commercially    except    in  semi-arid   regions.     In    humid 
regions,  the  production  of  seed  is  small  except  in  seasons 
when  drought  prevails.     At  the  present  time,  about  one- 
half  of  the  commercial  seed  is  grown  on  irrigated  lands  in 
regions  of  dry  summers.     Moisture  from  rain  or  irriga- 
tion after  the  alfalfa  plants  are  in  bloom  will  stimulate 
new  growth  from  the  crown,  which  greatly  reduces  the 
seed  yield.     When  a  seed  crop  is  desired,  irrigation  is 
withheld  until  the  seed  has  been  harvested.     Usually  the 
second  crop  of  alfalfa  is  allowed  to  produce  seed,  but  in 
the  northernmost  states  of  the  West,  it  is  necessarily  the 
first  crop,  as  the  second  will  not  mature,  and  in  the  South- 
western States  the  third  crop  is  often  preferred  for  seed. 

Various  factors  affect  the  amount  of  seed  that  alfalfa 
plants  produce.  The  most  important  are  the  thickness 
of  stand,  moisture  supply,  and  conditions  favorable  for 
tripping. 


ALFALFA 


347 


Isolated  plants  of  alfalfa  produce  most  seed.  West- 
gate  compared  isolated  plants  vegetatively  propagated 
from  the  same  mother  plant.  The  plants  that  were 
farthest  apart  —  namely,  18  by  39  inches  —  produced 
as  many  as  505  pods  each,  while  those  closest  together 
—  namely,  7  inches  each  way  —  produced  a  maximum 
of  but  38  pods.  The  beneficial  effect  of  isolation  seems 
partly  due  to  the  increased  sunlight 
received,  as  shaded  plants  produce  but 
few  pods.  It  is  possible,  too,  that  the 
heat  of  the  sun  favors  tripping,  as  flowers 
can  be  tripped  with  a  burning  glass  or 
by  shading  under  a  cage  and  then  ex- 
posing to  the  hot  sunshine. 

Abundant  moisture  lessens  seed  pro- 
duction, apparently  mainly  because  it 
stimulates  the  growth  of  new  sprouts. 
Too  little  moisture  may  also  seriously 
reduce  the  seed  yield,  but  alfalfa  with 
its  deep  root  system  is  not  frequently 
subjected  to  this  extreme.  The  subject  FIG.  35.  —  A  well- 
is  a  difficult  one  for  field  experimenta-  set  duster  of  alfalfa 
tion,  but  needs  much  further  study. 

Tripping  of  the  flowers  (Par.  413)  is  doubtless  an  impor- 
tant factor,  but  more  data  and  observations  are  needed,  es- 
pecially with  reference  to  the  relation  of  climatic  factors 
to  tripping.  The  relative  importance  of  automatic 
tripping  and  insect  tripping  remains  to  be  ascertained, 
but  observations  indicate  that  in  some  localities  when 
tripping  insects  are  rare,  automatic  tripping  is  probably 
the  determining  factor. 

In  all  producing  sections,  the  yield  of  seed  varies 
greatly  from  season  to  season,  but  the  factors  actually 


348       FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

involved  are  obscure.  Maximum  yields  of  20  bushels 
to  the  acre  have  been  reported,  but  8  bushels  is  considered 
a  large  yield.  Returns  of  from  2  to  5  bushels  an  acre 
represent  the  usual  crop.  In  Europe  the  yield  to  the 
acre  ranges  from  300  to  700  pounds,  according  to  different 
authorities. 

In  recent  years,  an  increasing  amount  of  alfalfa  seed 
has  been  grown  on  unirri gated  semi-arid  lands.  Such 
seed  is  considered  preferable  for  dry  land  farming,  and 
this  is  probably  so,  but  there  is  no  convincing  experimental 
evidence  of  such  superiority.  In  growing  alfalfa  for  seed 
production  on  dry  land,  very  thin  stands  are  best,  but 
there  is  an  increasing  tendency  to  plant  it  in  rows  about 
three  feet  wide  with  the  plants  about  one  foot  apart  in 
the  rows.  This  permits  of  cultivation  as  frequently  as 
may  be  desired. 

The  crop,  if  harvested  for  seed,  should  be  cut  as  soon 
as  most  of  the  pods  are  ripe  and  the  seeds  yellow  and 
hardened. 

413.  Pollination.  —  The  structure  of  the  alfalfa  flower 
has  a  peculiar  explosive  mechanism  which  especially 
adapts  it  to  being  cross-pollinated  by  large  bees,  especially 
bumble  bees.  The  filaments  of  the  upper  stamens  form- 
ing the  stamineal  tube  are  under  tension,  but  are  held  in 
a  straight  position  in  the  keel  by  means  of  processes  on 
the  wings.  The  insertion  of  a  toothpick  into  the  nectary 
or  the  pressing  downward  of  the  keel  will  release  these 
processes,  when  the  stamineal  column  with  the  inclosed 
pistil  recurves,  violently  striking  the  standard.  This 
process  is  called  "  tripping."  When  a  bee  trips  a  flower, 
the  pollen  is  scattered  on  its  under  side.  If  it  then  visits 
and  trips  another  flower,  it  is  quite  likely  to  dust  pollen 
from  the  first  on  the  stigma  of  the  second. 


ALFALFA 


349 


Numerous  investigators  have  studied  the  process  and 
have  experimented  in  various  ways  with  the  flowers. 
These  researches  have  shown  that  only  in  very  rare  cases 
will  an  alfalfa  flower  set  seed  without  being  tripped ; 
that  self-tripping  takes  place  under  certain  conditions; 
that  artificial  tripping  with  self-pollination  is  hardly 
as  efficacious  as  cross-pollination;  that  honey-bees  are 
usually  unable  to  trip  the  flowers,  bumble  bees  and  other 
large  bees  being  the  most  efficient  insects.  BurkilPs 
contention  that  the  stigma  must  be  ruptured  or  irritated 
by  striking -the  standard  or  an  insect  does  not  hold  true 
under  American  conditions.  Cross-pollination  results  in 
the  production  of  about  30  per  cent  more  seeds  to  the 
pod  than  does  self-pollination.  It  has  not  been  definitely 
shown,  however,  that  cross-pollinated  seeds  possess  any 
superiority. 

Under  Western  conditions,  it  is  probable  that  more 
flowers  are  self -tripped  than  are  tripped  by  insects,  but 
more  quantitative  data  on  this  point  are  needed. 

414.  Seeds.— Alfalfa 
seed  may  be  adulterated 
with  that  of  trefoil,  sweet 
clover  or  bur  clover.  All 
of  these  resemble  alfalfa 
seeds  closely.  The  sweet 
clover  can  be  detected 
easily  by  crushing  a  few 
seeds  when  the  character- 
istic vanilla-like  odor  of 
the  sweet  clover  will  re- 
veal its  presence.  A  very 

small  amount  of  sweet  clover  seed,  up  to   5  per  cent, 
is  sometimes  present  in  American  seed  as  an  impurity, 


FIG.  36.  —  Alfalfa  seeds  :  a,  indi- 
vidual seeds,  showing  variation  in 
form  ;  b,  edge  view  of  a  seed,  show- 
ing the  scar ;  c,  natural  size  of  seeds. 


350        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR    CULTURE 

but  more  than  this  is  certainly  an  adulteration.  To 
detect  trefoil  and  bur  clover  seeds,  careful  examination 
is  necessary.  Very  commonly  both  of  these  are  added  as 
adulterants,  especially  to  European  seed.  Old  alfalfa  seed, 
as  well  as  shriveled  seed,  has  a  dull  reddish  brown  color. 

Troublesome  weeds  that  may  be  present  in  alfalfa  are 
Canada  thistle,  dodder,  curled  dock,  quack-grass,  wild 
carrot  and  oxeye-daisy. 

Good  commercial  seed  may  attain  a  purity  of  98-99 
per  cent  and  a  viability  of  97-99  per  cent.  A  bushel  weighs 
from  60  to  63  pounds.  One  pound  contains  182,000  to 
237,000  seeds,  an  average  of  about  220,000.  Usually  a 
small  per  cent  of  the  seed  is  hard,  especially  if  the  seed  is 
new.  Good  seeds  germinate  within  6  days  and  mostly 
in  2  or  3  days. 

415.  Viability  of  seed.  —  Alfalfa  seed  retains  its  via- 
bility for  many  years,  depending  partly  on  the  conditions 
of  storage.  Seed  of  the  season  does  not  germinate  as  well 
as  that  one  year  old.  4  . 

The  best  alfalfa  seed  is  characterized  by  its  plumpness 
and  a  decidedly  yellowish  color.  Dead  seeds  become 
reddish  brown  and  are  easily  distinguished.  Turkestan 
alfalfa  seed  is  trampled  out  by  animals,  and  may  often  be 
recognized  by  its  dusty  appearance  and  the  presence  of 
small  pebbles. 

In  all  alfalfa  seed  a  varying  percentage  is  "  hard  " ; 
that  is,  does  not  absorb  water  and  germinate  promptly. 
There  are  no  published  data  regarding  the  behavior  of 
hard  seeds  in  the  soil,  but  the  probability .  is  that  some  of 
them  remain  dormant  a  long  time  and  hence  are  practically 
worthless. 

At  the  Colorado  Experiment  Station  samples  preserved 
in  envelopes  and  vials  for  six  years  showed  a  range  of  ger- 


ALFALFA  351 

mi  nation  of  66  to  92  per  cent,  and  six  years  later  the  same 
samples,  then  twelve  years  old,  still  germinated  63  to  92.5 
per  cent.  One  sample  germinated  72  per  cent  when  ten 
years  old  and  63  per  cent  six  years  later. 

Experiments  in  Austria  showed  a  gradual  decrease  in 
germination  from  94  per  cent  the  first  year  to  54  per  cent 
the  eleventh  year.  Shriveled  seed  is  inferior  to  plump 
seed,  both  in  percentage  of  viability  and  in  keeping  qual- 
ities. It  is  probable,  also,  that  the  resultant  plants  are 
less  vigorous. 

416.  Alfalfa  improvement.  —  The  wide  diversity  which 
exists  both  in  wild  and  cultivated  alfalfas  has  in  recent 
years  stimulated  much  interest  in  breeding  to  secure 
varieties  especially  adapted  to  certain  purposes  and  to 
special  localities.  Among  the  improvements  sought  by 
various  investigators  along  this  line,  the  following  may  be 
enumerated :  — 

1.  A  higher  degree  of  leanness  combined  with  erect 
stems,  so  as  to  produce  more  and  better  hay ; 

2.  Better  seed  production,  especially  if  combined  with 
good  hay  quality; 

3.  Greater  drought  resistance ; 

4.  Greater  cold  resistance ; 

5.  Varieties  that  possess  ability  to  produce  seed  under 
humid  conditions,  so  that  adapted  strains  may  gradually 
be  developed ; 

6.  Better  pasture  varieties,  especially  such  as  have  root- 
stocks  so  as  to  withstand  pasturing  without  injury; 

7.  Disease  resistance. 

The  characters  enumerated  are  all  possessed  in  vary- 
ing degrees  by  different  varieties.  Especially  promising 
for  the  breeder  are  hybrids  between  sickle  alfalfa  and  true 
alfalfa,  of  both  of  which  numerous  forms  exist.  The 


352        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

greater  hardiness  and  rootstock-producing  tendency  of 
the  former,  combined  with  the  better  seed-production  and 
superior  habit  of  the  latter,  are  characters  highly  desirable 
to  combine. 

While  breeders  have  already  developed  various  promis- 
ing improved  alfalfas,  none  of  these  has  yet  become  estab- 
lished commercially. 

417.  Breeding    methods.  —  In    connection    with    the 
improvement    of    alfalfa    by    breeding,    certain    special 
methods  will  be  found  useful.     Due  to  the  readiness  with 
which  natural  crossing  takes  place,  a  large  proportion  of 
alfalfa  plants  are  heterozygote ;    that  is,  do  not  breed 
true  even  when  the  seed  is  produced  by  bagged  or  caged 
flowers.     On  this  account  a  progeny  row  of  each  selected 
plant  should  be  grown  from  seed  produced  under  bag  to 
determine  whether  it  will  breed  true  to  type. 

For  the  rapid  multiplication  of  a  selected  plant,  two 
methods  may  be  used :  First,  new  plants  can  readily  be 
produced  either  from  cuttings,  or,  where  rootstocks  are 
present,  by  division;  second,  pure  seed  can  be  secured 
by  growing  the  plants  in  cages  to  exclude  insects,  and 
tripping  the  flowers  by  pressure  of  the  hand. 

Increase  plots  of  a  selected  strain  must  be  grown  at  a 
considerable  distance  from  any  other  alfalfa,  otherwise 
crossing  will  be  effected  by  bees. 

418.  Weeds.  —  In    many    places    weeds    constitute    a 
serious  drawback  to  alfalfa  culture. 

Kentucky  blue-grass  is  probably  most  troublesome  to 
established  fields  in  Ontario  and  the  Eastern  States.  Heavy 
liming  so  necessary  for  alfalfa  also  favors  blue-grass,  which 
usually  appears  by  the  second  year,  and  unless  restrained 
will  kill  out  half  of  the  alfalfa  by  the  third  or  fourth  year. 
In  the  northern  part  of  the  irrigated  regions,  blue-grass 


ALFALFA  353 

is  also  beginning  to  be  troublesome  in  alfalfa.  Blue-grass 
is  best  eradicated  by  means  of  a  spring  tooth  harrow, 
especially  one  with  broad  pointed  teeth.  Care  must  be 
taken  to  subdue  the  blue-grass  as  soon  as  it  begins  to 
appear.  The  disk  harrow  is  also  commonly  used,  but 
this  does  not  destroy  the  blue-grass  as  well  as  the  spring 
tooth,  though  it  may  be  used  to  precede  the  latter.  Disk- 
ing often  splits  the  crowns  of  the  alfalfa  plant,  and  the 
opinion  is  growing  that  this  is  injurious  rather  than 
beneficial,  as  some  writers  have  claimed. 

Quack-grass  (Agropyron  repens),  in  Michigan,  Vermont 
and  other  Eastern  States,  is  a  serious  weed.  Owing  to 
its  deep  running  rootstocks,  it  cannot  be  eradicated  by 
harrowing,  and  thus  continues  to  spread  as  long  as  the 
field  remains  in  alfalfa. 

Crab-grass  (Digitarid)  and  foxtail  or  pigeon-grass 
(Setaria)  are  the  worst  alfalfa  weeds  in  the  Southern 
States.  The  former  is  troublesome  as  far  north  as  Kansas 
and  Maryland,  and  the  latter  still  farther.  Both  are 
annuals  and  reseed  in  spite  of  any  practical  precaution. 
The  plants  are  rather  easily  destroyed  by  harrowing,  as 
they  are  annuals  and  lack  the  rootstocks  characteristic 
of  blue-grass.  Humid  weather  especially  favors  crab- 
grass,  while  it  injures  alfalfa,  which  under  such  conditions 
may  be  smothered  and  practically  destroyed. 

Bermuda-grass  is  becoming  an  increasing  menace  in 
alfalfa  fields  in  Arizona  and  California.  In  this  region, 
Bermuda-grass  produces  an  abundance  of  seed  which 
reaches  the  alfalfa  fields  in  irrigation  water.  Its  eradi- 
cation without  plowing  has  not  been  accomplished.  In 
Virginia,  Bermuda-grass,  even  when  abundant,  has  not 
proven  to  be  troublesome  in  alfalfa. 

Squirrel-tail  (Hordeum  jubatum),  a  grass  native  to  the 

2A 


354        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 

Rocky  Mountain  region,  is  a  troublesome  weed  in  Colorado, 
Utah  and  other  states.  This  grass  matures  before  alfalfa, 
and  the  long  bearded  spikelets  are  very  injurious  to  live 
stock.  When  squirrel-tail  is  very  abundant,  the  first 
crop  of  alfalfa  is  rendered  practically  worthless.  Such 
a  crop  is  sometimes  cut  while  very  young  before  the 
squirrel-tail  is  mature  enough  to  be  objectionable  to 
animals. 

Wall-barley  (Hordeum  murinum)  is  a  winter  annual 
from  the  Mediterranean  region  abundant  in  California. 
Like  squirrel-tail,  it  is  very  objectionable  on  account  of 
its  bearded  glumes,  but,  before  these  are  formed,  provides 
good  early  pasturage.  It  is  a  common  practice  to  burn 
this  grass  when  dry.  Where  abundant,  it  may  ruin  the 
first  crop  of  alfalfa. 

419.  Dodder  or  love-vine.  —  This  parasite  or  weed  is 
often  very  injurious  in  alfalfa  fields.  Alfalfa  fields  usually 
become  infested  by  sowing  dodder  seed  mixed  in  with 
alfalfa.  The  dodder  seed  germinates  in  the  ground,  and 
the  young  plantlets  quickly  twine  about  the  alfalfa  seed- 
lings. Thereafter,  they  are  parasitic  on  the  alfalfa,  ab- 
sorbing their  nourishment  by  means  of  sucker-like  organs 
which  penetrate  the  host.  Dodder  usually  appears  in 
alfalfa  fields  in  small  isolated  spots  which  rapidly  grow 
larger  if  the  weed  is  not  destroyed. 

Four  species  of  dodder  have  been  found  infesting  alfalfa 
in  the  United  States ;  namely,  Cuscuta  planiflora,  C. 
indecora,  C.  epithymum  and  C.  arvensis.  The  last  named 
is  native  to  America,  infesting  many  kinds  of  herbaceous 
plants,  while  the  other  three  are  of  Old  World  origin. 
Cuscuta  planiflora  is  the  most  abundant  and  most  injurious 
species  on  alfalfa  in  the  West. 

The  best  way  to  prevent  this  weed  is  to  avoid  planting 


ALFALFA 


355 


alfalfa  seed  containing  dodder.  The  seeds  of  the  latter 
can  usually  be  detected  by  careful  examination  with  a 
magnifier.  In  all  the  species  the  seeds  are  smaller  than 
those  of  alfalfa,  subglobose  or  somewhat  angular,  with  a 
finely  roughened,  dull 
surface.  The  color 
may  be  grayish,  yel- 
lowish or  brownish. 

Various  methods  of 
destroying  patches  of 
dodder  in  alfalfa  fields 
have  been  suggested. 
A  good  plan  is  to  cut 
the  affected  plants 
very  close  to  the 
ground  before  the 
dodder  sets  seed. 
Burning  the  infested 
spots  by  means  of 
straw  or  by  spraying 
with  kerosene  is  also 
effective. 

If  the  whole  field 
is  affected,  the  best 
plan  is  to  utilize  it 
as  pasture,  especially 


FIG.    37.  —  Dodder    or   love-vine   growing 
on  alfalfa. 


for  sheep,  which  eat 

the  alfalfa  close  and 

thus   check  the  dodder.      If    such    a    field    be    utilized 

for  hay,  some  of  the   dodder  seed  will  ripen   and  the 

field  tend  to  become  more  infested  every  year. 

When  such  a  field  is  plowed  up,  it  is  best  to  grow  other 
crops  not  subject  to  dodder,  at  least  two  years.     Other- 


356        FOE  AGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

wise,  there  is  likelihood  of  the  alfalfa  becoming  infested 
by  the  dodder  seed  in  the  soil. 

420.  Diseases.  —  Alfalfa  is  subject  to  various  fungous 
diseases,  but  it  is  exceptional  for  any  of  these  to  cause 
large  damage,  though  the  aggregate  loss  is  considerable. 

Root-rot  (Ozonium  omnivorum)  occurs  in  Texas  and 
Arizona,  and  attacks  many  other  plants  besides  alfalfa. 
It  appears  on  the  roots  as  orange-colored  threads.  The 
attacked  plant  nearly  always  dies.  The  fungus  gradually 
spreads  to  surrounding  plants,  which,  with  'the  rotting  of 
the  root,  wilt  and  then  die.  Rarely  a  plant  may  survive 
by  sending  out  new  roots  from  near  the  crown.  The  circles 
of  dead  plants  caused  by  this  disease  are  characteristic. 

Only  indirect  means  of  treatment  can  be  used.  The 
root-rot  fungus  thrives  best  in  poorly  ventilated  soils, 
and  further  is  not  known  to  attack  any  monocotyledonous 
plant.  The  growing  of  such  crops  as  corn,  sorghum,  the 
small  grains  and  grasses,  in  rotation  tends  to  free  the  land 
from  the  fungus. 

At  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station  a  root-rot  caused  by 
Fusarium  roseum  has  been  found  killing  young  alfalfa 
seedlings. 

Bacillus  tumefaciens,  the  organism  of  crown-gall  on 
fruit  trees,  sometimes  affects  alfalfa,  causing  small  irregu- 
lar nodules  on  the  roots  and  stems.  Affected  plants  have 
been  found  in  Kentucky,  Maryland,  Pennsylvania  and 
Alabama.  The  affected  plants  are  stunted  somewhat, 
but  no  serious  damage  to  fields  has  yet  been  traced  to  this 
organism. 

Urophlyctis  alfalfa  is  a  fungus  that  causes  wart-like 
excrescences  to  appear  near  the  crown,  both  on  the  larger 
roots  and  on  the  bases  of  the  stems.  The  galls  are  usually 
small,  but  may  become  3  or  4  inches  in  diameter.  This 


ALFALFA  357 

disease  was  first  observed  in  Ecuador,  but  has  recently 
been  found  in  Germany,  England,  California,  Oregon 
and  Arizona. 

Bacterial  stem-blight  of  alfalfa  caused  by  Pseudomonas 
medicaginis  has  recently  been  described  from  Colorado 
and  neighboring  states.  This  disease  attacks  the  stems 
primarily,  usually  causing  a  linear  yellowish  to  blackish 
discoloration  down  one  side  of  the  stem  through  one  or 
more  internodes.  Sometimes  the  disease  extends  to  the 
crown,  destroying  the  buds  and  eventually  the  plant. 
The  disease  is  confined  almost  wholly  to  the  first  cutting, 
which  may  be  seriously  injured,  but  the  subsequent  cut- 
tings are  almost  unaffected.  Few  plants  are  killed  the 
first  year,  but  thereafter  the  loss  is  greater  so  that  in 
three  or  four  years  the  stand  may  be  ruined.  Cutting 
the  stubble  very  short  in  early  spring  as  soon  as  the  first 
damage  is  over  has  been  recommended.  This  will  remove 
any  diseased  portions  which  may  infect  the  new  growth, 
and  besides  removes  the  weakened  frost-injured  shoots 
which  seem  particularly  liable  to  the  disease.  Hardy 
varieties  which  escape  winter  injury  are  likely  to  prove 
less  subject  to  the  disease.  A  very  similar  disease  also 
occurs  in  Virginia  and  Maryland. 

The  leaves  of  alfalfa  are  attacked  by  various  fungi. 
Most  common  is  Pseudopeziza  medicaginis  which  causes 
small  dark  brown  spots  on  the  leaves.  When  very  abun- 
dant, there  is  considerable  shedding  of  leaflets. 

At  the  New  Jersey  Experiment  Station  comparative 
chemical  analyses  were  made  of  healthy  and  diseased 
plants  of  the  third  cutting.  The  healthy  plants  showed 
10  per  cent  more  fat,  12  per  cent  more  protein  and  18  per 
cent  more  fiber  than  the  diseased,  and  were  richer  in  car- 
bohydrates by  11  per  cent. 


358        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 

Rust  ( Uromyces  striatus)  is  another  common  leaf 
disease  recognizable  by  forming  small  spots  of  reddish 
spores.  Macrosporium  sarcinceforme  occurs  frequently 
in  the  East,  forming  pale  circular  spots  bearing  scattered 
black  spores. 

Two  mildews  also  occur  occasionally,  especially  in  the 
shade ;  namely,  powdery  mildew  (Erysiphe  trifolii)  and 
downy  mildew  (Peronospora  trifolii). 

None  of  these  leaf  diseases  has  as  yet  proven  to  be 
of  serious  consequence. 

Anthracnose  (Colletotrichum  trifolii)  occurs  on  alfalfa 
in  Virginia  and  Maryland,  causing  spots  on  both  the  stems 
and  leaves.  These  are  at  first  purplish,  then  brown.  The 
stems  are  frequently  girdled  by  the  spot  and  then  die, 
and  the  whole  plant  may  succumb. 

Alfalfa  "  yellows  "  is  a  disease  of  unknown  cause.  It 
occurs  quite  commonly  in  Virginia  and  other  Eastern 
States.  The  leaves  turn  gradually  to  an  orange-yellow 
color,  and  the  plant  then  ceases  growth.  When  this 
happens,  it  is  best  to  cut  the  crop  at  once,  even  if  but  a 
few  inches  high.  It  has  been  suggested  that  the  disease 
is  probably  related  to  the  mosaic  disease  of  tobacco, 
known  to  be  transmitted  by  a  species  of  aphis.  A  species 
of  leaf-hopper  seems  to  be  constantly  associated  with 
alfalfa  yellows. 

421.  Insects.  —  Insects  have  thus  far  not  proved  a 
serious  menace  to  alfalfa  culture  in  America,  but  locally 
and  in  occasional  seasons  a  large  amount  of  damage  may 
be  caused  by  grasshoppers  or  by  caterpillars.  The 
recently  introduced  alfalfa  leaf  weevil  may,  however, 
prove  to  be  a  serious  factor  to  contend  with. 

Grasshoppers  are  the  most  injurious  insects  to  alfalfa 
in  the  West  at  the  present  time,  but  the  area  of  destruction 


ALFALFA 


359 


varies  from  year  to  year,  depending  on  the  local  abundance 
of  the  insects.  The  species  that  cause  most  damage  are 
Melanoplus  differentialis  and  Melanoplus  bivittatus.  They 
are  more  likely  to  be  destructive  in  seasons  when  drought 
causes  a  shortage  in  natural  food  supply  and  in  areas 
where  the  proportion  of  uncultivated  land  is  large,  as 
under  these  circumstances  they  congregate  in  the  culti- 
vated fields. 

Two  effective  means 
of  destroying  these  in- 
sects are  by  the  use  of 
the  hopper-dozer  and 
poisoned  baits.  The 
hopper-dozer  is  essen- 
tially a  shallow  pan  with 
a  vertical  back  one  or 
two  feet  high.  The  pan 
contains  water  covered 
with  a  layer  of  kerosene. 
When  this  is  dragged 
over  the  field,  many  of 
the  insects  jump  directly 
into  the  pan  or  fall  into 
it  after  striking  the 
back. 

The  most  effective  poisoned  bait  is  the  Griddle  mixture 
made  by  mixing  one  pound  of  paris  green  and  one  pound 
of  salt  in  one-half  barrel  of  fresh  horse  manure.  Grass- 
hoppers eat  the  bait  very  readily  and  are  killed  by  the 
poison.  Where  grasshopper  eggs  are  known  to  be  abun- 
dant in  an  alfalfa  field,  many  may  be  destroyed  by  disking 
in  the  fall  or  winter. 

The  alfalfa  leaf  weevil  (Phytonomus  posticus),  a  native 


FIG.  38.  —  Adult  form  of  the  alfalfa 
weevil  (Phytonomus  posticus)  :  Adults 
clustering  on  and  attacking  a  spray  of 
alfalfa.  (Slightly  enlarged.) 


360        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

of  Europe,  appeared  in  Utah  in  1904,  and  has  now  spread 
over  a  considerable  portion  of  that  state  and  south  Idaho. 
The  insect  causes  much  damage  by  the  larvae  eating  the 
leaves  of  the  first  crop  of  alfalfa,  and  incidentally,  by  delay- 
ing the  second  crop,  does  not  allow  time  enough  for  the 
third  crop  to  mature. 

The  best  method  of  control  thus  far  devised  is  to  cut 
the  first  crop  and  remove  it  from  the  field  as  soon  as  it 
shows  signs  of  serious  injury.  The  field  should  then  be 
gone  over  with  a  spring  tooth  harrow  and  followed  by  thor- 
ough treatment  with  a  heavy  brush  drag.  The  object 
is  to  destroy  as  many  of  the  larvae  and  pupae  as  possible, 
partly  by  crushing,  partly  by  burying  in  the  dust,  and 
partly  by  starving,  as  after  thorough  dragging  the  alfalfa 
stubble  will  be  entirely  bare  of  leaves.  If  the  work  has 
been  well  done,  the  second  crop  will  be  practically  free 
from  the  weevil,  and  if  done  early  enough,  there  will  be 
ample  time  for  the  third  crop  to  mature. 

Several  caterpillars  cause  more  or  less  injury  at  times 
to  alfalfa  by  eating  the  leaves.  The  most  important  are 
Eurymus  eury theme  and  Autographa  gamma  calif ornica. 
The  best  practical  remedy,  if  the  caterpillars  are  abundant, 
is  to  cut  the  alfalfa  as  close  to  the  ground  as  possible  while 
the  caterpillars  are  young,  thus  starving  them  and  protect- 
ing the  succeeding  crop  from  injury.  Close  pasturing  is 
also  a  means  of  preventing  injury,  as  caterpillars  rarely 
become  abundant  in  fields  thus  utilized. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

RED  CLOVER 

RED  clover  is  the  most  important  of  all  leguminous 
forage  crops  both  on  account  of  its  high  value  as  feed  and 
from  the  fact  that  it  can  be  so  well  employed  in  rotations. 
The  last  decade  has  witnessed  a  serious  decline  in  the 
acreage  grown  in  most  of  the  eastern  states,  apparently  due 
to  an  increasing  difficulty  in  securing  satisfactory  stands. 

422.  Botany  of  red  clover.  —  The  plant  occurs  naturally 
in  the  greater  part  of  Europe ;  in  Algiers,  northern  Africa ; 
and  is  found  in  Asia  Minor,  Armenia,  Turkestan,  southern 
Siberia  and  the  Himalayas. 

A  large  number  of  forms  have  been  named  by  botanists, 
Ascherson  and  Graebner  describing  30  varieties  from 
middle  Europe  alone. 

423.  Agricultural  history.  —  Red  clover  was  not  known 
as  a  crop  by  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans.     It  was 
apparently  first  cultivated  in  Media  and  south  of  the 
Caspian  Sea,  in  the  same  general  region  where  alfalfa 
was  first  domesticated.     In  Europe  its  use  as  an  agri- 
cultural plant  is  comparatively  modern,  the  first  mention 
of  its  use  as  feed  for  cows  being  by  Albertus  Magnus  in 
the  thirteenth   century.     There   are   definite .  records   of 
its  cultivation  in  Italy  in  1550,  in  Flanders  in  1566,  in 
France  in  1583.     From  Flanders  it  was  introduced  into 
England  in  1645,  and  shortly  afterwards  its  culture  was 
described  in  several  books.     Its  use  in  Europe  became 
extensive  about  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

361 


362        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 


It  was  probably  introduced  into  the  United  States  by 
the  early  English  colonists,  but  the  first  published  mention 
of  its  culture  was  by  Jared  Eliot,  who  wrote  of  its  being 

grown    in    Massachu- 
setts in  1747. 

Its  introduction  into 
European  agriculture 
had  a  profound  effect 
in  that  clover  soon 
came  to  be  used  in  ro- 
tations in  place  of 
bare  fallow.  Its  in- 
fluence there  on  agri- 
culture and  civiliza- 
tion is  stated  by  high 
authority  to  be  greater 
than  that  of  the 
potato,  and  much 
greater  than  that  of 
any  other  forage  plant. 
Clover  not  only  in- 
creased the  abundance 
of  animal  feed  and 
therefore  of  manure, 
but  also  helped  greatly 
by  adding  nitrogen  to 
the  soil  directly. 

It  is  now  much  cultivated  not  only  in  Europe  and 
America,  but  also  in  Chile  and  New  Zealand. 

424.  Importance  and  distribution.  —  Red  clover  is  by 
far  the  most  important  leguminous  crop  grown  in  America. 
The  area  devoted  to  it  is  about  five  times  as  great  as  that 
to  alfalfa.  More  exact  comparisons  are  not  possible, 


FIG.  39.  —  Red  clover. 


RED   CLOVER 


363 


as  clover  is  most  commonly  grown  mixed  with  timothy, 
while  alfalfa  is  mainly  grown  alone. 

On  the  accompanying  map  is  shown  the  acreage  of  all 
clovers  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  in  1909.  It 
will  be  noted  that  the  crop  becomes  decidedly  less  impor- 
tant in  the  Southern  States.  This  is  also  true  of  the  semi- 


FIG.  40.  —  Map  showing  acreage   of  red  clover  in  the  United   States, 
1909,  and  Canada,  1910. 

arid  states,  except  that  in  Colorado  and  Montana  consid- 
erable red  clover  is  grown  in  the  mountain  valleys  at  high 
altitudes. 

In  Norway  it  is  grown  as  far  north  as  latitude  69.2°. 
On  the  south  coast  of  Alaska  it  succeeds  fairly  well,  but 
it  winter-kills  in  the  interior. 

425.  Soil  relations.  —  Red  clover  is  not  a  particularly 
exacting  crop  in  regard  to  its  soil  requirements,  excepting 
that  it  be  well  drained.  It  succeeds  better  as  a  rule  in 


364        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

clayey  soils  than  in  loams,  and  better  in  loams  than  in 
sandy  soils.  Tough  clays  are,  however,  very  unfavorable, 
partly  on  account  of  their  undrained  condition.  The 
best  growth  is  secured  on  fertile  clayey  soils  rich  in  lime. 
A  good  content  of  humus  is  also  favorable.  Deep  soils 
are  especially  desirable,  as  this  enables  the  plant  to  develop 
its  extensive  root  system  which  may  penetrate  to  a  depth 
of  over  five  feet. 

Soil  moisture  conditions  are  most  important  for  red 
clover.  It  will  not  thrive  in  sandy  or  gravelly  soils  that 
become  droughty.  It  is  especially  intolerant  of  water- 
logged soil,  and  on  this  account  is  poorly  adapted  to  grow- 
ing under  irrigation  on  poorly  drained  lands. 

426.  Climatic  relations.  —  In  a  general  way  the  climatic 
relations  of  red  clover  are  shown  by  the  map  of  its  dis- 
tribution, in  which  both  the  regions  and  the  extent  of 
its  culture  are  indicated.  It  is  distinctly  a  crop  for 
humid  regions  without  excessive  summer  or  winter  tem- 
perature. 

No  critical  studies  have  been  recorded  of  the  cold 
resistance  of  red  clover,  but  it  is  probably  more  hardy  in 
this  respect  than  alfalfa,  as  it  endures  well  the  winters  of 
Nova  Scotia,  Maine  and  Minnesota.  Seeds  from  north- 
ern-grown plants  are  preferred  for  regions  of  cold  winters. 
Stebler  and  Schroter  remark  that  dry  cold  is  injurious  in 
Switzerland  in  spring  after  growth  has  begun. 

Regarding  the  heat  tolerance  of  red  clover,  the  data  are 
even  less  definite.  In  the  southernmost  states  the  crop 
succeeds  only  if  planted  in  the  fall,  and  all  of  the  plants 
usually  disappear  by  the  following  August. 

Humidity  combined  with  moderate  temperature  is 
favorable  to  the  plant,  and  dry  atmospheric  conditions 
are  decidedly  unfavorable.  Combined  with  high  temper- 


RED   CLOVER 


365 


ature,  humidity  seems  to  be  more  injurious.  Under  such 
conditions,  the  Orel  variety  quickly  shows  signs  of  distress. 
427.  Effect  of  shade.  —  Red  clover  is  often  planted  in 
orchards  as  a  cover  crop.  It  does  not  thrive  very  well  in 
shaded  places  and  mostly  disappears  after  the  first  season. 
Stebler  and  Volkart  report  an  experiment  in  which  a  mix- 
ture containing  red  clover  was  grown  on  two  plots,  one 
of  them  artificially  shaded.  These  plots  were  observed 
six  years  and  the  percentage  of  clover  plants  determined 
each  season,  with  the  following  results :  — 


1903 

1904 

1905 

1906 

1907 

1908 

Not  shaded 

38.7 

22.3 

4.7 

0.2 

0.8 

23.2 

Shaded        .     . 

51.2 

7.8 

4.9 

0.2 

0. 

0.1 

428.  Life  period.  —  Red  clover  is  commonly  said  to  be 
a  short-lived  perennial.  As  a  crop  it  is  nearly  always 
treated  as  a  biennial  over  the  principal  area  of  its  distri- 
bution in  America.  In  the  Southern  States,  it  is  often 
grown  as  a  winter  annual,  as  it  does  not  as  a  rule  survive 
the  hot  summers  and  such  weeds  as  crab-grass.  In  the 
Pacific  Northwest  and  northern  Europe,  red  clover  fields 
often  yield  satisfactorily  for  three  years. 

Individual  plants  of  red  clover  may  live  six  to  nine 
years,  but  comparatively  few  live  over  three  years.  To 
some  extent,  the  length  of  life  period  is  a  varietal  character, 
both  short-  and  long-lived  strains  being  secured  by  selec- 
tion. Pastured  plants  persist  a  long  time  and  probably 
much  longer  than  when  not  grazed.  On  the  other  hand, 
but  few  plants  survive  after  a  seed  crop  has  been  harvested 
from  them. 


366        FORAGE  PLANTS   AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

429.  Agricultural  varieties.  —  Red  clover  is  a  very 
variable  species,  and  in  any  field  numerous  forms  may 
easily  be  selected.  Many  of  these  different  forms  are 
particularly  prominent  in  the  spring  before  the  flower- 
ing branches  appear.  In  speaking  of  varieties  and  strains, 
it  must,  therefore,  be  borne  in  mind  that  such  are  defined, 
not  by  the  individuals  being  all  alike,  but  only  by  possess- 
ing one  or  more  characters  in  common.  Two  so-called 
varieties  of  red  clover  are  distinguished  in  American 
agriculture :  ordinary  or  medium,  and  mammoth  or 
sapling.  Other  so-called  varieties  are  usually  named 
after  the  region  in  which  they  are  produced  and  are  better 
considered  regional  strains;  such  as,  Chilean  red  clover, 
French  red  clover,  etc.,  though  in  a  few  cases  the  plants 
are  readily  recognizable. 

Ordinary  or  medium  red  clover,  as  grown  in  America, 
is  distinguished  by  the  fact  that  over  most  of  the  clover 
region  it  will  produce  both  a  hay  crop  and  a  seed  crop  the 
same  season.  If  sown  by  itself,  it  produces  satisfactory 
crops  for  only  one  season,  but  in  grass  mixtures,  a  good 
many  of  the  plants  live  two  years  and  some  of  them 
longer.  Various  characters  to  distinguish  medium  from 
mammoth  red  clover  have  been  stated  by  authors,  but 
none  of  them  hold  perfectly  true.  In  the  order  of  their 
trustworthiness,  these  characters  may  thus  be  contrasted  : — 

MEDIUM  RED  CLOVER  MAMMOTH  RED  CLOVER 

Blooms  two  weeks  earlier  than     Blooms  with  timothy. 

timothy. 

Stems  hollow.  Stems  solid. 

Plants  live  two  years.  Plants  live  three  years  or  more. 

Tap  root  branches  little.  Tap  root  branches  much. 

Heads  often  in  pairs.  Heads  seldom  in  pairs. 

Pedicels  short,  straight.  Pedicels  longer,  bent. 


RED   CLOVER  367 

Mammoth  red  clover  is  also  known  as  sapling  clover, 
bull  clover,  pea-vine  clover,  perennial  clover,  and  in 
Europe  as  cow-grass.  Botanically  it  is  known  as  Tri- 
folium  pratense  perenne  Host,  but  has  erroneously  been 
considered  the  same  as  zigzag  clover  (Trifolium  medium), 
which  is  a  distinct  species,  only  very  sparingly  introduced 
into  America.  On  account  of  its  lateness,  as  well  as  its 
longer  persistence,  mammoth  clover  is  preferable  for 
mixing  with  timothy,  as  the  blooming  time  of  the  two 
coincide.  If  sown  alone,  the  yield  is  somewhat  greater 
than  the  medium,  as  it  usually  grows  taller.  On  this 
account,  it  is  preferable  where  both  a  hay  crop  and  a  seed 
crop  cannot  be  secured  in  the  same  season.  Mammoth 
clover  is  preferred  to  medium  for  poor  or  sandy  soils, 
as  it  is  generally  believed  that  it  produces  better  crops 
under  such  circumstances. 

The  seed  of  mammoth  clover  is  slightly  larger  than 
that  of  medium,  but  cannot  be  certainly  distinguished. 
Genuine  seed  is  scarce  and  commands  a  relatively  high 
price.  In  Rhode  Island,  Card  reports  that  it  succeeds 
better  than  medium  red  on  "  acid  "  soils. 

Regional  strains  of  red  clover  are  usually  named  from 
the  region  in  which  they  are  produced.  Only  a  few  of 
them  differ  markedly  from  the  ordinary  American  strain. 
Orel  or  Russian  clover  has  nearly  smooth  herbage,  and, 
like  mammoth,  does  not  produce  a  second  cutting.  For 
the  northern  tier  of  states  and  Canada,  it  possesses  con- 
siderable promise.  Under  Maryland  conditions  it  suffers 
noticeably  from  the  summer  heat. 

430.  Comparison  of  regional  strains.  —  Numerous  com- 
parative trials  of  red  clovers  from  different  sources  have 
been  made  both  in  Europe  and  in  America.  In  Europe, 
American  red  clover  is  objected  to  on  account  of  its  greater 


368        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

hairiness.  The  opinion  prevails  also  that  the  yield  is 
not  as  a  rule  as  satisfactory,  and  that  the  plants  are  more 
subject  to  mildew.  Werner  states,  however,  that  the  value 
of  the  American  seed  under  German  conditions  is  not  yet 
clear,  in  spite  of  the  numerous  field  trials. 

At  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  in  1901  American 
medium  and  mammoth  both  outyielded  European  strains 
from  Hungary,  England,  Steirmark,  Transylvania,  Russia 
and  Germany,  though  the  hay  of  the  European  sorts  was 
better  in  quality,  owing  to  the  plants  being  less  hairy. 
In  1902  out  of  16  American  and  European  strains,  the 
four  highest  yields  were  from  American 'lots.  In  1905 
out  of  22  American  and  2  foreign  strains,  the  largest 
yield,  2.2  tons  an  acre,  was  from  the  Orel  strain  from 
Russia. 

At  the  Maine  Experiment  Station  29  regional  strains 
of  red  clover  were  tested  in  1902  on  duplicate  plots  of  one- 
eightieth  acre.  One  plot  of  each  was  cut  August  30,  when 
the  earliest  was  ready  for  cutting.  The  largest  yields  were 
obtained  in  the  order  given  from  plots  with  seed  from 
Minnesota,  Bohemia,  Indiana,  Wisconsin,  Brittany  and 
Ohio.  In  the  following  season  the  order  of  their  excel- 
lence, arranged  according  to  the  total  yield  from  two 
cuttings,  was  Indiana,  Bohemia  I,  Russia,  Bohemia  II, 
Illinois,  Indiana,  Ohio. 

A  test  of  regional  strains  conducted  cooperatively  by 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  in  1905  gave 
the  results  shown  in  the  accompanying  table.  In  this 
series,  Orel  clover  gave  the  highest  total  yield,  as  well  as 
the  highest  at  two  of  the  stations.  Orel  clover  yields, 
however,  but  one  cutting,  so  the  relative  ranks  of  the 
varieties  would  undoubtedly  be  different  if  the  total  yields 
for  the  season  were  tabulated :  — 


RED   CLOVER 


369 


TABLE  SHOWING  ACRE  YIELDS  OF  THE  FIRST  CUTTING  OF  DIFFER- 
ENT REGIONAL  STRAINS  OF  RED  CLOVER  AT  FIVE  STATIONS  IN  1905 


g 

»  * 

1 

i 

fc     fc 

o 

-    ^ 

*  < 

O  ^jj 

fc 

SOURCE  OP  SEED 

9  ^ 

x  Q 

H  ^ 

w  2 

gg 

£g 
2  § 

ft 

13§ 

ll 

II 

I 

o£ 

«02 

&&  a 

feQ 

CO 

H 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Ib. 

Commercial      seed      (Western 

bulk)   

5,700 

4,400 

4,320 

5,220 

3,633 

23,273 

Western  Ohio    

4,980 

3,500 

4,248 

4,950 

2,760 

20,438 

Northern  Indiana       .... 

4,780 

2,510 

4,468 

4,484 

2,960 

19,202 

Southern  Indiana        .... 

5,020 

2,710 

4,800 

4,860 

2,440 

19,830 

Illinois      

4,990 

3,990 

4,068 

4,830 

2,720 

20,598 

JYtissouri                             . 

5,010 

4,450 

4,400 

5,510 

2,640 

22,010 

Iowa                                    • 

3,950 

4,130 

4,120 

3,960 

2,320 

18,480 

Commercial  seed   (not  inocu- 

lated)     

5,750 

3,998 

4,420 

4,680 

3,520 

22,368 

Commercial  seed  (inoculated) 

6,040 

4,312 

4,394 

4,140 

3,520 

22,406 

Michigan      

5,570 

4,400 

4,109 

3,750 

2,240 

20,069 

Nebraska      

3,590 

4,500 

4,308 

5,080 

2,720 

20,198 

Eastern  Ohio     

5,080 

4,640 

4,800 

5,370 

2,320 

22,210 

Kentucky     

5,540 

3,420 

4,120 

4,610 

2,840 

20,530 

Tennessee     

4,670 

3,970 

3,640 

5,090 

2,800 

20,170 

Kief,  Russia      

5,840 

4,080 

4,020 

4,200 

2,800 

20,940 

Orel,  Russia      

7,100 

5,610 

5,320 

4,062 

4,360 

26,452 

r>  750 

4,030 

5,000 

4,350 

4,080 

23,210 

Courland       

4,750 

3,280 

3,780 

4,470 

2,880 

19,160 

Wisconsin     

4,950 

2,970 

3,760 

4,380 

2,960 

19,020 

Oregon     

4,930 

4,560 

4,460 

4,300 

2,680 

20,930 

Pennsylvania     

4,460 

1,800 

4,480 



2,960 



New  York     

~ 

2,400 

3,640 

431.  Time  of  seeding.  —  The  time  of  seeding  red  clover 
is  determined  largely  by  its  relation  to  other  crops  in  the 
rotation,  and  by  climatic  conditions.  In  the  southern- 
most clover  sections,  fall  sowing  is  necessary,  as  few  plants 
are  able  to  survive  the  summer  after  the  hay  is  cut.  In  the 
northernmost  places  where  it  succeeds,  spring  sowing  is 
usually  necessary  in  order  to  avoid  serious  winter-killing. 
In  the  region  of  its  most  extensive  culture,  seeding  may 
be  done  at  any  time  from  very  early  spring  to  early  fall, 
or  even  in  midwinter  on  the  snow  or  frozen  ground. 

2B 


370         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 

In  the  last-mentioned  area,  the  seed  is  most  commonly 
sown  in  spring  on  fall-sown  grain,  as  the  preparation  of 
a  special  seedbed  is  thus  rendered  unnecessary.  The 
actual  time  of  thus  seeding  in  grain  is  determined  mainly 
by  soil  conditions.  If  the  seed  is  broadcasted  on  the 
surface,  the  ideal  soil  condition  is  while  the  ground  is  still 
much  cracked  and  honeycombed  from  alternate  freezing 
and  thawing  in  very  early  spring,  as  the  seeds  thus  become 
covered. 

Later  spring  sowing  on  grain,  even  with  harrowing, 
or  with  a  seed  drill,  is  as  a  rule  less  desirable ;  the  fall- 
grown  grain  is  larger  and  the  later  started  clover  seed- 
lings are  less  well  able  to  withstand  either  the  shading 
of  the  grain,  or  the  drought  of  summer. 

If  sown  alone,  red  clover  may,  in  the  region  of  its  best 
development,  be  sown  at  any  time  from  early  spring  until 
early  autumn.  Late  fall  plantings  are  undesirable,  as  the 
danger  of  winter  injury  is  thereby  increased. 

At  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station,  red  clover  was 
.seeded  in  the  middle  of  each  month  from  April  to  Sep- 
tember on  well-prepared  seed  beds.  Excellent  stands  were 
secured  from  the  April,  May  and  June  seedings ;  good 
stands  from  those  of  August  and  September ;  while  that 
of  July  was  decidedly  poor. 

Crozier  in  Michigan  obtained  excellent  stands  by  seed- 
ing in  February,  March,  April  and  December.  Sowings 
made  in  July,  August,  September  and  October  succumbed 
to  winter. 

432.  Rate  of  seeding.  —  Red  clover  contains  about 
250,000  seeds  to  the  pound,  varying  from  207,000  in  Ger- 
man seed  to  297,000  in  American.  One  pound  of  seed  to 
an  acre  evenly  scattered  would  be  about  6  seeds  to  a 
square  foot. 


RED   CLOVER  371 

The  usual  rate  of  seeding  red  clover  in  America  is 
8  pounds  to  an  acre.  Different  experiment  stations  rec- 
ommend the  following  rates  for  their  respective  states : 
Wisconsin  and  North  Dakota,  15  pounds ;  Oregon,  8  to 
10  pounds ;  Louisiana  and  Kansas,  10  to  15  pounds. 

In  Europe  the  rate  seems  to  be  higher.  Stebler  and 
Volkart  recommend  17  pounds  an  acre  in  Switzerland, 
and  Glaerum  in  Norway  found  the  optimum  rate  to  be 
25  pounds  per  acre. 

433.  Seedlings.  —  The  first  true  leaf  of  red  clover  is 
compound,  but  consists  of  only  one  leaflet.     This,  how- 
ever, is  jointed  on  to  the  petiole  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  three  leaflets  of  an  ordinary  leaf.     The  primary  root 
is  undivided  and  grows  more  rapidly  than  the  stem.     In 
contrast  to  the  alfalfa  primary  root,  that  of  red  clover 
contracts  as  it  grows  older,  resulting  in  the  crown  becom- 
ing deep-set.     Nodules  may  appear  on  the  roots  by  the 
time  they  are  one  week  old. 

434.  Seeding  with  a  nurse-crop.  —  Red  clover  is  most 
frequently  sown  with  some  other  crop,  not  because  this  is 
the  best  for  the  clover,  but  because  it  economizes  labor. 
The  seed  may  be  sown  in  or  with  the  following  crops : — 

1.  In  winter  or  spring  on  fall-sown  wheat  or  rye. 

2.  In  spring  with  wheat,  barley  or  oats. 

3.  In  corn  at  the  last  cultivation. 

4.  With  rape  or  turnips  in  late  summer. 

If  sown  in  spring  on  fail-sown  grain,  the  clover  seed 
may  be  broadcasted,  preferably  in  early  spring  when  the 
ground  is  still  loose  from  frost  action ;  or  somewhat  later  in 
spring,  the  seed  may  be  sown  and  the  grain  cross-harrowed. 

Shepperd  in  North  Dakota  secured  the  best  results  by 
seeding  with  a  disk  grain-drill  across  the  rows  of  wheat. 
This  method  is  increasing  in  favor  in  other  states. 


372         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

In  Ohio  and  neighboring  states,  Drake  advocates  scat- 
tering straw  over  fields  of  fall  sown  wheat  in  which  it 
is  planned  to  seed  clover  the  following  spring.  A  thin 
mulch  of  straw  increases  greatly  the  likelihood  of  a  good 
"  catch  "  of  clover.  The  effect  seems  due  to  the  straw 
keeping  the  soil  surface  moist  and  preventing  packing  and 
erosion,  and  perhaps  also  by  supplying  humus. 

When  the  clover  is  seeded  in  spring  with  a  small  grain, 
barley  is  preferable  to  oats,  as  it  does  not  make  so  dense 
a  growth  and  thus  injure  the  clover  by  shading.  Where 
wheat  can  be  planted  in  spring,  it  is  preferable  to  either 
barley  or  oats.  At  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station, 
clover  seeded  with  wheat  yielded  4360  pounds  an  acre 
against  2360  pounds  when  seeded  with  oats. 

Seeding  in  corn  is  becoming  a  common  practice  in  the 
New  England  States.  At  the  Massachusetts  Experiment 
Station  this  method  was  used  seventeen  years  without 
failure.  In  recent  years,  it  has  been  the  most  satisfactory 
practice  in  Vermont,  and  has  given  good  results  in  Minne- 
sota. It  has  not  been  successful  in  Kansas. 

Good  stands  of  clover  have  been  obtained  in  Tennessee 
by  sowing  in  tobacco  at  the  last  cultivation  about  the 
end  of  July.  Red  clover  may  be  sown  in  cotton  stubble, 
but  this  is  rarely  practicable. 

Sowing  clover  with  two  pounds  of  rape  about  the  end 
of  May  gives  good  results  in  western  Oregon.  Sowing 
in  July  or  August  with  turnips  has  proved  satisfactory  in 
the  Eastern  States. 

At  the  South  Dakota  Station,  excellent  results  were 
secured  by  sowing  medium  clover  in  early  spring  on  brome- 
grass  sod  after  thorough  disking.  The  clover  seed  was 
sown  at  the  rate  of  10  to  12  pounds  an  acre.  In  one  field 
the  mixture  yielded  5484  pounds  of  hay  an  acre  of  the 


RED    CLOVER  373 

mixture  against  3294  for  the  brome  alone;    in  another 
9358  pounds  to  2360  pounds. 

Clover  is  sometimes  sown  in  wheat  or  rye  stubble.  This 
is  a  frequent  practice  in  Europe,  especially  if  the  spring- 
sown  seed  fails  to  catch.  The  same  method  gives  excel- 
lent results  in  western  Oregon  if  seeded  in  early  September. 

435.  Seeding  without  a  nurse-crop.  —  A  stand  of  red 
clover  is  most  likely  to  be  secured  when  sown  alone. 
This  method  is,  however,  seldom  used  unless  all  others 
prove  unsatisfactory,   as  it  involves  special  preparation 
of  the  land.     In  the  South,  such  seeding  must  be  in  the 
fall,  preferably  about  September  1 ;  otherwise  crab-grass 
and  other  weeds  will  destroy  the  clover.     In  the  North, 
the  seed  may  be  sown  on  a  well-prepared,  firm  seed-bed 
any  time  from  early  spring  until  fall.     Late  fall  sowing 
is  inadvisable,  as  winter-killing  is  likely  to  be  excessive. 
Weeds  are  the  principal  menace  to  the  success  of  spring 
seeding,  but  they  may  be  controlled  to  some  extent  by 
occasionally  clipping  with  the  mower. 

436.  Depth    of    planting.  —  Clover    seed    should    be 
planted  shallow  to  get  the  best  results,  in  no  case  more 
than  an  inch  in  clay  soils  and  one  and  one-half  inches 
in  sandy  soils. 

At  the-  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  less  than  one- 
half  of  the  seeds  germinated  when  covered  with  1  inch 
of  compacted  garden  soil,  and  less  than  one-fifth  when 
covered  with  2  inches.  Shallow  planting  f  to  J  of  an  inch 
in  depth  gave  the  best  results  and  all  very  similar.  The 
seeds  planted  f  to  f  of  an  inch  deep  also  germinated  more 
promptly  than  those  placed  on  the  surface  or  those  planted 
deeper.  The  longest  rooted  seedlings  developed  from  the 
seeds  planted  J,  J  and  f  of  an  inch  deep. 

At  the  Michigan  Experiment  Station  red  clover  was 


374        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 

seeded  at  various  depths.  The  best  germination  was  at 
a  depth  of  1  inch  and  none  grew  when  planted  2  inches 
deep  or  more. 

437.  Winter-killing.  —  In  soils  composed  of  heavy  clay 
or  rich  in  humus,  red  clover  is  very  apt  to  be  uprooted  and 
destroyed  by  the  heaving  of  the  soil  in  late  winter  or  early 
spring.     This    is    particularly    likely   to    damage    young 
clover  seeded  in  the  fall,  but  may  injure  that  seeded  the 
previous  spring.     A  top  dressing  of  coarse  stable  manure 
applied  in  fall  will  lessen  greatly  the  liability  to  damage 
from  this  cause.     If  the  roots  be  heaved  out  1  inch  or  less, 
prompt  rolling  will  be  helpful.     Very  dry  autumn  weather 
sometimes    weakens    clover   plants    so    that   the   winter 
mortality  is  increased. 

According  to  Werner,  red  clover  suffers  from  cold  in 
Germany  only  on  wet  clay,  limestone  and  humus  soils 
during  January  in  the  coldest  winters.  Lund  found  that 
at  Copenhagen  in  a  severe  winter  American  red  clover  was 
much  more  injured  than  was  European. 

438.  Treatment  of  clover  fields.  —  If  clover  be  seeded 
in  spring  with  a  grain  crop,  there  is  usually  no  return  the 
first  season  other  than  a  little  fall  pasturage.     Under 
very  favorable  conditions,  however,  a  moderate  crop  of 
hay  may  be  cut,  or  this  may  be  allowed  to  mature  for 
seed. 

If  tne  clover  be  seeded  alone  in  spring  on  well-prepared 
land,  a  good  cutting  of  hay  is  as  a  rule  secured  the  same 
season,  and  in  rare  cases  a  second  crop. 

During  the  second  season,  the  general  practice  is  to  cut 
the  first  crop  for  hay  and  the  second  for  seed,  after  which 
most  of  the  plants  die. 

439.  Fertilizers.  —  Numerous  fertilizer  experiments  on 
clover    have    been    reported    by    American    experiment 


RED   CLOVER  375 

stations.  It  is  difficult,  however,  to  generalize  from  them, 
but  lime  and  barnyard  manure  both  nearly  always  increase 
the  yield,  and  phosphatic  fertilizers  are  usually  beneficial. 
The  results  with  potash  are  negative  in  about  half  of  the 
experiments  reported. 

Brooks  in  Massachusetts  found  no  appreciable  difference 
in  the  effect  of  potash  when  applied  as  muriate  and  as 
sulfate.  Chemical  analysis,  however,  showed  in  all 
cases  a  higher  per  cent  of  "  nitrogen-free  extract  "  in  the 
clover  fertilized  with  the  sulfate  of  potash. 

In  New  Jersey  the  use  of  superphosphates  with  other 
crops  was  quite  beneficial  in  increasing  the  clover  crop. 
Potash  also  was  useful,  but  barnyard  manure  gave  the 
best  results  of  all.  There  was  no  residual  effect  from 
nitrate  of  soda,  and  land  plaster  was  without  effect. 

At  the  Cornell  Experiment  Station  pot  experiments 
showed  that  clover  was  unable  to  obtain  the  phosphorus 
in  ground  rock  phosphate,  but  was  greatly  benefited  by 
acid  phosphate,  basic  slag  or  bone  black.  These  results 
agree  with  those  of  Kossovich  in  Russia. 

At  the  West  Virginia  Experiment  Station  phosphatic 
fertilizers  greatly  benefited  red  clover,  but  potash  did  not 
increase  the  yield. 

In  southern  Illinois,  Hopkins  secured  an  average  in- 
crease of  1.14  tons  hay  to  an  acre  by  the  use  of  2000  pounds 
ground  limestone  and  1200  to  1500  pounds  ground  rock 
phosphate.  "  Accumulating  evidence  indicates  that  the 
increasing  frequency  of  clover  failure  in  the  Illinois  corn 
belt  is  due  in  many  cases  to  deficiency  in  phosphorus." 

Mooers  at  the  Tennessee  Experiment  Station  tested 
various  fertilizers  on  a  mixture  of  orchard-grass  and  red 
clover.  "  At  the  start  all  the  plots  had  apparently  about 
an  equal  stand  of  cover  and  of  orchard-grass,  but  on  the 


376        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 

plots  which  received  acid  phosphate  or  a  mixture  of  acid 
phosphate  and  potash  salts  the  growth  of  clover  predomi- 
nated more  and  more  as  the  season  advanced.  On  the 
other  hand,  where  the  nitrate  of  soda  was  used  alone  or 
in  a  mixture  with  acid  phosphate  and  potash  the  orchard- 
grass  predominated;  that  is,  the  minerals  enabled  the 
clover  to  crowd  the  grass,  while  the  nitrate  of  soda  enabled 
the  grass  to  crowd  the  clover." 

440.  Gypsum.  —  Gypsum  was  formerly  much  used  for 
its  favorable  effect  on  clover,  but  in  the  United  States 
now  seems  to  be  employed  only  in  western  Oregon.     At 
the  Oregon  Experiment  Station,  increases  in  yield  of  from 
20  to  200  per  cent  were  secured.     The  rate  of  application 
varies  from  40  to  200  pounds  to  an  acre. 

The  cessation  of  the  use  of  this  substance  in  the  East- 
ern States  is  perhaps  largely  the  result  of  the  increased 
use  of  lime.  There  is  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the 
action  of  gypsum,  but  it  is  generally  agreed  that  it  is  in- 
effective on  poor  land. 

441.  Lime.  —  Lime  has  in  general  given  an  increased 
yield  when  applied  to  the  soil  before  sowing  red  clover. 
Usual  applications  are  1000  to  2000  pounds  of  burned 
lime  or  twice  as  much  of  ground  limestone  to  an  acre. 

Most  investigators  regard  the  litmus  test  as  a  fairly 
reliable  indication  that  the  soil  needs  lime,  but  in  some 
cases  this  does  not  hold  true.  For  example,  at  the  Ohio 
Experiment  Station  clover  grew  normally  on  one  soil  and 
but  poorly  on  two  others,  all  of  which  reddened  litmus 
paper.  Lime  alone  did  not  benefit  the  first  soil  for 
clover  but  improved  the  crop  on  the  last  two,  though  it 
did  not  bring  about  a  full  yield. 

442.  Irrigation.  —  Clover  is  not  much  grown  on  irrigated 
lands,   principally  because   alfalfa  will   yield   far   larger 


RED  CLOVER  377 

crops.  In  high  mountain  valleys,  however,  clover  suc- 
ceeds well  under  irrigation,  notably  in  the  Gallatin  Valley, 
Montana,  but  similar  success  has  been  had  in  several 
Western  States,  either  when  sown  alone  or  mixed  with 
timothy. 

King  in  Wisconsin  tested  irrigation  on  red  clover. 
Where  the  plots  were  irrigated  twice  after  the  first  cutting, 
the  second  cutting  was  over  two  tons  to  an  acre  as  against 
one  ton  where  not  irrigated.  Irrigation  after  the  second 
cutting  also  increased  greatly  the  fall  pasturage.  With 
an  optimum  amount  of  water,  either  rain  or  irrigation, 
King  concludes  that  the  clover  crop  may  be  double  what 
is  ordinarily  secured. 

443.  Red  clover  in  mixtures.  —  Much  more  red  clover 
is  sown  in  mixture  with  timothy  than  in  any  other  way, 
approximately  three-fourths  of  the  total  acreage  being 
thus  sown.     The  timothy  is  commonly  sown  with  wheat 
in  fall,  and  the  clover  added  in  the  spring. 

In  this  mixture  the  crop  is  mainly  clover  the  season  after 
sowing,  but  thereafter  is  mainly  timothy.  An  objection 
to  this  mixture  is  that  medium  clover  matures  sooner 
than  the  timothy,  but  this  may  be  avoided  by  using  the 
mammoth  variety.  Red  clover  and  alsike  are  also  fre- 
quently sown  together,  especially  where  there  is  difficulty 
in  securing  a  stand  of  the  former. 

Other  grasses  suitable  to  grow  with  red  clover  are 
orchard-grass  and  tall  meadow  oat-grass,  but  these  mature 
somewhat  sooner.  In  complex  grass  mixtures,  which  are 
more  popular  in  Europe  than  in  America,  red  clover  should 
always  be  included. 

444.  Use    in   rotations.  —  The    characteristics    of   red 
clover  make  it  particularly  well  adapted  to  use  in  rotation 
with  other  crops.     Various  such  rotations  are  possible, 


378        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

but  only  a  few  of  the  most  important  and  their  modifica- 
tions need  to  be  discussed. 

1.  Corn,  oats,  wheat,  clover,  timothy.  —  This  five-year, 
five-crop  rotation  is  the  commonest  one  employed  in  the 
Central  States.     The  timothy  is  seeded  with  the  wheat 
in  the  fall,  and  the  clover  on  the  wheat  in  the  spring.     In 
the  fourth  year  of  the  rotation  the  crop  is  largely  clover, 
and  in  the  fifth  mainly  timothy.     Rye  may  be  substituted 
for  wheat  in  some  places. 

2.  Corn,  oats,  wheat,   clover.  —  Where  the  hay  is  not 
needed  for  live  stock,  the  timothy  may  be  omitted  and  the 
clover,  preferably  mammoth,  grown   for  seed  only,  the 
straw  and  the  stubble  being  plowed  under.     This  is  an 
excellent  plan  to  follow  on  farms  where  it  is  not  desired 
to  keep  live  stock. 

3.  Corn,  wheat,  clover.  —  This  rotation  of  three  years 
and  three  crops  is  employed  where  wheat  is  sown  in  the 
spring.     Rye,  barley  or  oats  may  be  used  instead  of  the 
wheat,  and  any  other  cultivated  crop  in  place  of  the  corn. 

4.  Corn,  clover  or  corn,  corn,  clover.  —  This  is  the  sim- 
plest of  all  clover  rotations,  but  probably  brings  the  clover 
too  frequently  to  secure  the  best  results.     The  clover 
may  be  sown  in  the  corn  at  its  last  cultivation,  or  in  the 
spring  in  the  stubble,  or  after  preparing  the  land. 

445.  Effect  of  clover  in  rotations  when  only  the  stubble 
is  turned  under.  —  Red  clover  usually  exercises  a  mark- 
edly beneficial  influence  on  the  crop  that  succeeds  it,  even 
where  the  clover  has  been  cropped.  This  is  ascribed 
mainly  to  the  humus  and  nitrogen  added  to  the  soil  by  the 
roots  and  stubble. 

At  the  Massachusetts  Experiment  Station,  potatoes 
after  clover  stubble,  on  land  that  had  not  been  fertilized 
for  16  years,  the  yield  of  potatoes  was  95  per  cent  as  great 


RED   CLOVER  379 

as  on  similar  plots  that  had  received  a  fair  amount  of 
fertilizer  containing  nitrogen  each  year.  At  the  Rhode 
Island  Experiment  Station  potatoes  yielded  294.5  bushels 
after  clover  and  259.7  bushels  after  corn.  At  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Experiment  Station  the  fertility  of  the  soil  was 
fully  maintained  for  25  years  on  certain  plots  where  clover 
was  grown  every  fourth  year  in  the  rotation  and  only  the 
stubble  plowed  under.  No. barnyard  manure  was  used, 
but  each  alternate  year  48  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  and 
100  pounds  of  potash  per  acre  was  added. 

The  results  at  the  Ohio  Experiment  Station  show  that 
in  general  a  good  crop  of  clover  will  leave  enough  nitrogen 
in  the  roots  and  stubble  for  the  succeeding  crop,  but  the 
nitrogen  supply  cannot  be  maintained  by  clover  alone 
even  if  planted  every  third  year.  At  the  Illinois  Experi- 
ment Station  the  yield  of  corn  grown  continuously  for  7 
years  averaged  35.7  bushels  to  an  acre.  In  a  rotation  of 
corn,  oats,  clover,  the  average  yield  of  corn  for  the  5  years 
immediately  after  clover  was  55.1  bushels,  and  after  clover 
cropped  two  years  46.8  bushels  to  an  acre.  At  the  Minne- 
sota Experiment  Station  it  was  found  that  6  pounds  of  red 
clover  sown  with  wheat  in  continuous  wheat  culture  in- 
creased the  average  yield  of  wheat  for  10  years  3J  bushels 
to  an  acre.  The  results  at  this  station  taken  as  a  whole 
show  that  the  nitrogen  content  of  the  soil  is  preserved  if  red 
clover  is  grown  two  years  in  a  five-year  rotation.  At  the 
Canebrake,  Alabama,  Experiment  Station,  oats  yielded 
52  bushels  an  acre  after  four-year-old  clover  stubble, 
while  a  yield  of  54  bushels  was  obtained  by  using  200 
pounds  of  nitrate  of  soda  to  an  acre. 

446.  Volunteer  crops.  —  A  good  stand  of  red  clover  is 
sometimes  secured  by  the  scattering  of  barnyard  manure 
which  happens  to  contain  sufficient  viable  seed. 


380        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 


Volunteer  crops  may  also  be  secured  from  fields  when 
some  of  the  seed  has  been  lost  in  harvesting,  or  by  allow- 
ing the  seed  to  become  shattered.  Successful  fields  were 
obtained  in  this  manner  at  the  Louisiana  Experiment 
Station  and  in  Alabama. 

To  secure  a  stand  in  this  manner  is,  however,  very  un- 
certain, and  further,  it  is  better  to  grow  some  other  crop 
than  to  have  clover  follow  clover. 

447.  Stage  to  cut.  —  If  red  clover  be  used  as  green  feed, 
it  is  probably  best  cut  before  bloom.  This  method  of 
feeding  is  more  common  in  Europe  than  in  America. 
European  authorities  nearly  all  agree  that  the  clover  for 
this  purpose  should  be  cut  before  blooming,  as  the  digesti- 
bility is  then  highest,  as  well  as  the  percentage  composition 
of  protein. 

If  cut  for  hay,  different  authorities  recommend  cutting 
in  young  bloom,  in  full  bloom,  and  when  the  heads  are 
half  brown.  The  content  of  digestible  nutrients  is  greatest 
in  full  bloom.  Later  cuttings,  however,  cure  more  easily 
than  the  early  ones,  and  it  is  probable  that  better  curing 
counterbalances  largely  the  lower  content  of  nutrients  :  — 

TABLE  SHOWING  RELATION  BETWEEN  TIME  OF  CUTTING  AND 
ACRE  YIELD  OF  RED  CLOVER  IN  POUNDS  ON  A  WATER- 
FREE  BASIS 


STAGE  WHEN  CUT 

ILLINOIS 

PENNSYL- 
VANIA 

CONNECTI- 
CUT 

Just  before  bloom. 

1385 
1401 

Pull  bloom 

2526 

3680 
3420 

Some  heads  dead 

Three-fourths  heads  dead      .     .     . 
All  heads  dead    
Nearly  out  of  bloom    
Nearly  ripe     

2427 

3361 

1750 
1523 

A  FIELD  OF  SUMAC  SORGO  IN  TEXAS. 


A  FIELD  OF  RED  CLOVER  IN  WASHINGTON  STATE. 
PLATE  V. 


BED   CLOVER  381 

448.  Composition  at  different  stages.  —  Several  inves- 
tigators have  studied  the  composition  of  clover  at  dif- 
ferent stages  of  its  development.     The  total  dry  matter 
and   the   ash   increase   until   maturity,    though   in   some 
cases  there  is  a  slight  decline  after  flowering,  due  to  leach- 
ing.    The  highest  percentage  of  protein  is  contained  before 
blossoming,  but  the  greatest  total  amount  when  the  plants 
are  in  full  bloom.     The  fatty  substances  show  but  little 
change    in   their   relative    amounts.     The  percentage   of 
fiber  increases  quite  rapidly  after  blooming.     The  per- 
centage  of   carbohydrates    shows    little    change,    but   is 
greatest   during  blooming. 

The  greatest  total  amount  of  digestible  substance  is 
about  the  time  of  full  bloom.  The  highest  percentage  of 
nutritive  substance  is  before  bloom,  and  also  the  highest 
percentage  of  digestibility. 

449.  Number   of  cuttings.  —  Mammoth    clover    yields 
but  a  single  cutting  of  mature  hay,  the  second  growth 
never  becoming  large  enough  to  justify  mowing.     Orel 
red  clover  behaves  in  the  same  way. 

Medium  red  clover,  over  much  of  the  area  best  adapted 
to  it,  yields  a  heavy  crop  of  hay  at  the  first  cutting,  and 
later  a  second  smaller  cutting.  Usually  the  second  cut- 
ting is  allowed  to  mature  for  seed. 

Near  the  northern  limit  of  clover  culture  but  one  crop 
of  either  hay  or  seed  can  be  obtained. 

In  Louisiana,  near  the  southern  extreme  of  its  success- 
ful culture,  red  clover  is  best  sown  in  October,  when  two 
cuttings  of  hay,  one  in  May  and  one  in  July,  are  usually 
secured. 

European  experiments  have  consistently  shown  a  greater 
total  yield  of  hay  from  two  cuttings  than  .from  a  greater 
number.  Voelcker  in  Germany  secured  a  less  yield  from 


382        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 

three  and  four  cuttings  than  from  two,  and  still  less  when 
the  clover  was  cut  five  and  six  times,  but  the  smallest  yield 
of  all  when  cut  but  once.  Weiske  secured  3570  kilograms 
to  an  hectare  when  cut  twice,  and  only  3392  kilograms 
when  cut  three  times.  In  another  experiment  in  Germany, 
clover  was  cut  six  times  and  yielded  only  4678  pounds  to 
an  acre  against  9297  pounds  when  cut  but  twice.  It 
is  probable,  therefore,  that  the  total  yield  of  red  clover 
is  much  less  if  pastured  than  if  cut  for  hay. 

450.  Yields  of  hay.  —  The  average  yield  of  red  clover 
hay  in  the  United  States  in   1909  was   1.29  tons  to  an 
acre  when  sown  alone  and  1.27  tons  to  an  acre  mixed 
with  timothy. 

At  the  Michigan  Experiment  Station  red  clover  grown 
continuously  for  5  years  from  1896  to  1900  averaged  3110 
pounds  hay  to  an  acre.  In  rotations  the  yields  were 
higher.  During  the  years  1906-7-8  clover  grown  con- 
tinuously averaged  2430  pounds  to  an  acre  on  one  plot  and 
2240  pounds  on  another;  in  simple  rotation  with  wheat 
2520  pounds  on  one  plot  and  2457  pounds  on  another; 
in  a  three-year  rotation  with  wheat  and  corn,  2143  pounds 
on  one  plot,  2683  pounds  on  another. 

At  the  Rhode  Island  Experiment  Station  with  very 
heavy  fertilizing  red  clover  produced  to  an  acre  6360  pounds 
hay  in  the  first  cutting  and  2760  pounds  in  the  second. 
At  the  North  Dakota  Experiment  Station  the  average 
hay  yield  to  an  acre  of  the  first  cutting  for  7  years  was  3547 
pounds.  At  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College  the  average 
hay  yield  to  an  acre  for  6  years  of  the  first  cutting  was  5900 
pounds  of  medium  red  and  6620  pounds  of  mammoth. 

451.  Relation  of  green  weight  to  hay  weight.  —  Taking 
the  average  water  content  of  green  clover  at  72  per  cent 


RED   CLOVER 


383 


and  that  of  clover  hay  at  18  per  cent,  the  ratio  of  green 
weight  to  hay  weight  would  be  approximately  3  to  1. 

The  available  American  field  data  show,  however,  a 
wide  range  of  variation  in  the  ratio  both  as  to  different 
places  and  as  to  different  strains  in  the  same  place :  - 


TABLE  SHOWING  CORRESPONDING  YIELDS  OF  RED  CLOVER 
GREEN  AND  DRY 


GREEN  WEIGHT 

HAY 

RATIO 

PLACE  AND  AUTHORITY 

Pounds 

Pounds 

17461 

4482 

3.9 

Penn.  Exp.  Sta. 

17760 

4808 

3.7 

Penn.  Exp.  Sta. 

11020 

3260 

3.7 

Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  121. 

First  cutting 

4620 

1740 

2.7 

Wis.  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  121. 

Second  cutting 

20939 

4335 

4.8 

Minn.    Exp.    Sta.    (Bur.    PL    Ind. 

Bui.  95)  average  for  21  strains. 

16474 

2760 

6. 

Guelph,  Canada  (Bur.  PL  Ind.  Bui. 

95)  average  for  29  strains. 

23280 

2880 

8.1 

Guelph  (Courland,  Russia,  strain). 

20800 

4360 

4.8 

Guelph  (Orel,  Russia,  strain). 

452.  Feeding  value.  —  But  few  feeding  experiments 
have  been  recorded  that  show  the  feeding  value  of  red 
clover  compared  with  other  hays.  It  is,  however,  gener- 
ally recognized  to  be  of  high  value. 

At  the  Indiana  Experiment  Station  clover  and  timothy 
were  compared  in  fattening  steers,  using  corn  as  a  con- 
centrate. The  animals  fed  on  clover  consumed  1.41  pounds 
more  hay  each  day  and  3.06  pounds  more  corn.  The 
actual  gain  and  the  cost  of  a  hundredweight  of  gain  was 
distinctly  in  favor  of  the  clover.  "  Throughout  the 


884        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

experiment   the   condition  of  the   clover-fed   steers   was 
much  better." 

453.  Comparative  feeding  value  of  the  first  and  second 
crops  of  hay.  —  As  the  second  crop  of  clover  is  but  rarely 
cut  for  hay,  the  subject  of  the  relative  value  of  the  hay 
of  the  two  cuttings  has  received  but  little  attention. 

At  the  Tennessee  Experiment  Station  the  crop  of  red 
clover  hay  from  the  second  cutting  was  found  both  less 
palatable  and  also  less  nutritious  to  steers.  Comparative 
chemical  analyses  showed  but  very  slight  differences. 

454.  Soiling.  —  Red  clover  is  an  excellent   green  feed 
for  milch  cows.     German  experiments  show  that  it  pro- 
duces more  milk  than  an  equivalent  amount  of  hay. 

Bloating  seems  never  to  occur  when  clover  is  fed  in  this 
manner,  but  it  must  be  neither  wet  with  dew  or  rain 
when  cut,  nor  should  it  be  wilted. 

The  acre  yields  of  green  matter  from  fields  of  red  clover 
have  been  measured  by  several  investigators.  At  the 
Pennsylvania  Experiment  Station,  the  first  cutting  yielded 
17,461  pounds.  At  the  Idaho  Experiment  Station  yields 
of  12  tons  from  hill  land  and  18  tons  from  bottom  were 
secured.  Three  cuttings  at  Agassiz,  B.  C.,  in  one  season, 
were,  respectively,  14.5,  12.0  and  6.2  tons.  At  the  Minne- 
sota Experiment  Station  the  average  yield  from  21  regional 
strains  at  the  first  cutting  was  20,948  pounds. 

Green  feeding  of  clover  is  the  usual  mode  of  utilizing 
in  many  parts  of  Europe.  It  is  usually  cut  shortly  before 
the  blossoms  appear,  as  the  nitrogen  content  is  highest 
at  this  time,  and  there  is  but  little  fiber. 

455.  Pasturage.  —  Red  clover  makes  an  excellent  pas- 
ture for  all  kinds  of  live  stock,  but  care  must  be  exercised 
with  ruminants  to  avoid  bloating  (Par.  101).    As  ordinarily 
grown  in  rotations,  the  crop  furnishes  some  pasturage  in 


EED   CLOVER  386 

the  fall  of  the  season  it  is  planted,  but  it  should  not  be 
grazed  too  closely,  otherwise  the  danger  of  winter  injury 
is  increased.  Where  two  crops  of  hay  are  harvested  the 
second  season,  there  may  still  be  some  pasturage  produced, 
especially  if  soil  moisture  conditions  are  favorable.  There 
is  rarely  much  pasturage  after  a  seed  crop  has  been 
harvested. 

456.  Silage.  —  Red    clover    may    be   preserved    as   si- 
lage, especially  when  unfavorable  weather  makes  haying 
impracticable.     The  results   so   far  obtained  with  pure 
red  clover  thus  preserved  have  not  been  entirely  satisfac- 
tory.    At  the  Canada  Central  Experimental  Farm,  clover 
silage  was  found  on  the  basis  of  chemical  analysis  to  be  of 
less  feeding  value  than  green  clover,  but  the  silage  was 
eaten  with  eagerness  both  when  the  clover  was  put  in 
whole  and  when  cut  into  lengths  of  1  inch.     At  the  Wis- 
consin Experiment  Station  clover  silage  varied  greatly  in 
quality,  some  samples  being  very  good,  others  ill  smelling. 

At  the  Oregon  Experiment  Station,  clover  was.  ensiled 
when  the  first  heads  were  beginning  to  discolor.  The 
clover  was  run  through  a  cutter  and  made  good  silage. 
There  was  no  apparent  need  of  additional  water.  At  the 
Ohio  Experiment  Station  clover  silage  was  kept  three 
years  and  was  then  eaten  readily.  The  clover  should 
be  ensiled  as  rapidly  as  possible  after  mowing,  first  run- 
ning it  through  a  cutter  to  insure  close  packing. 

457.  Number   of   flowers    and    seeds   to    the   head.  — 
The  number  of  flowers  in  a  head  of  red  clover  averages 
about  85.     At  Ames,  Iowa,  Pammel  reports  that  the  num- 
ber of  flowers  to  a  head  varies  apparently  with  soil  condi- 
tions.    On  black  loam  the  average  for  the  first  crop  was 
71.1  and  for  the  second  crop  98.1,  or  where  underlaid  with 
gravel,  101 ;  on  alluvial  soil,  third  crop,  68.7.     The  maxi- 

2c 


386 


FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 


mum  number  found  in  any  head  was  140  for  the  first 
crop,  150  for  the  second  and  123  for  the  third. 

The  ovary  of  red  clover  contains  two  ovules,  but  of 
these  usually  only  one  matures.  Good  heads  contain 
from  16  to  40  seeds  each,  the  average  being  about  25.  In 
exceptional  plants,  both  ovules  may  develop.  Records 
have  been  published  of  heads  containing  90  to  130  seeds 
each. 

Beal  in  Michigan  counted  the  seeds  in  50  heads  from 
each  of  6  plants,  finding,  respectively,  1260,  1275,  1640, 
1485,  1820  and  2720  seeds. 

Hopkins  at  the  West  Virginia  Experiment  Station 
found  that  122  red  clover  heads  of  the  first  crop  contained 
6042  seeds,  an  average  of  over  49  seeds  per  head. 

Pammel  has  made  numerous  counts  of  seeds  to  the  head 
in  Iowa.  His  results  are  tabulated  as  follows  :  — 

RED  CLOVER  SEEDS  TO  THE  HEAD  —  FIRST  AND  SECOND  CROPS 

IN  IOWA 


PLACE 

SOIL 

CROP 

HEADS 
COUNTED 

SEEDS 
PER  HEAD 

Ames     .     .     . 
Idagrove     .     . 
Algona        .     . 
Harlan       .     . 

Clay  loam 
Black  loess 
Black  loam 
Black  soil 

First 
First 
Second 
Second 

TTir«f 

44 
50 
28 
50 

1949 

64.7 
1.82 
80.4 
3.9 

OK  QQ 

7O1 

97  ^ 

T^irsit 

9OO 

4.1   1 

90O 

4Q  7 

The  average  number  of  seeds  to  a  head  is  sometimes  used 
to  estimate  the  probable  yield  of  seed  to  an  acre.  If  the 
seeds  average  25  to  the  head,  and  the  stand  is  good,  a 
yield  of  one  to  two  bushels  to  an  acre  may  be  expected. 


RED    CLOVER  387 

458.  Pollination    and    fecundation.  —  The    flowers    of 
red  clover  are  especially  adapted  to  being  cross-pollinated 
by  insects,  especially  bumble  bees. 

Miiller  records  39  species  of  insects  that  visit  red  clover 
flowers  in  Germany.  One  species  of  bumble  bee  secures 
the  honey  by  biting  through  the  base  of  the  corolla.  For 
Iowa,  Pammel  records  14  species,  8  of  them  being  bumble 
bees.  In  Illinois,  Robertson  observed  20  species,  five 
of  them  being  bumble  bees. 

Plants  screened  from  flying  insects  failed  to  set  any 
seeds  in  the  experiments  conducted  by  Darwin  in  Eng- 
land, and  this  has  been  the  common  result  secured  by  later 
experimenters.  Some  investigators  have,  however,  found 
a  few  seeds  produced  by  screened  plants. 

Frandsen  in  Sweden  has  recently  made  extensive  studies 
regarding  the  matter.  In  1910  out  of  numerous  bagged 
and  undisturbed  flowers  he  secured  no  seed;  when  arti- 
ficially self -pollinated,  0.1  per  cent  of  the  flowers  set  seed ; 
when  artificially  pollinated  by  another  flower  of  the  same 
plant,  0.8  per  cent ;  when  artificially  cross-pollinated, 
46.1  per  cent.  In  1911  in  similar  experiments  the  per- 
centage of  seeds  to  flowers  by  the  three  methods  was, 
respectively,  0  per  cent,  0.1  per  cent,  '0.4  per  cent  and 
42.3  per  cent. 

Waldron  at  Dickinson,  North  Dakota,  found  that 
53.6  per  cent  of  the  heads  produced  seeds  in  the  open  and 
but  9  per  cent  when  screened.  When  butterflies  were 
placed  in  netting  tents  over  red  clover,  only  2.4  per  cent 
of  the  heads  set  seed,  but  when  bumble  bees  were  thus 
placed,  45.7  per  cent  of  the  heads  produced  seeds. 

459.  Seed-production.  —  Medium    red    clover   seed   is 
mainly  produced  in  those  regions  where  a  crop  of  seed 
can  be  procured  after  one  of  hay  has  been  harvested.     In 


388         FORAGE  PLANTS   AND   THEIR   CULTURE 


the  northernmost  regions  of  clover  culture,  only  one  crop 
can  be  secured,  which  may  be  either  hay  or  seed.  Mam- 
moth clover  does  not  produce  much  second  growth,  so 
that  the  hay  crop  must  be  sacrificed  when  a  seed  crop  is 
desired. 

Where  two  cuttings  can  be  obtained,  it  is  very  rare 
that  the  first  is  ever  cut  for  seed.  The  first  crop  does  not 
as  a  rule  seed  heavily.  Two  reasons  have  been  assigned 

in  explanation  —  first,  that 
pollinizing  insects  are  not 
abundant  enough ;  and  second, 
the  plants  tend  to  produce  new 
shoots  from  the  base  unless 
weather  conditions  are  very 
dry.  There  are  no  experi- 
mental data  recorded,  however, 
as  to  the  relative  seed-yielding 
capacities  of  the  first  crop  and 
the  second  crop,  but  in  Iowa 
more  seeds  to  a  head  have 
been  found  in  the  second  crop 
than  in  the  first. 
Seed  crops  are  not  usually  harvested  until  the  second 
season,  but  sometimes  a  fair  seed  yield  may  be  obtained 
from  clover  sown  in  spring,  either  on  wheat  or  alone. 
This  treatment  'is  thought,  however,  to  weaken  the 
plants  and  materially  lessen  the  growth  the  following 
season. 

The  best  seed  crops  are  obtained  when  the  growth  -of 
the  clover  is  not  rank,  and  when  dry,  cloudless  weather 
conditions  prevail  during  the  period  of  blooming  and  ripen- 
ing. For  the  first  reason,  light  soils  are  supposed  to  pro- 
duce better  seed  crops  than  clays  or  clay  loams,  especially 


FIG.  41.  —  Stages  in  the  de- 
velopment of  red  clover  seed. 
a  and  c,  flower  in  prims  and 
ripe  ;  b  and  d,  immature  and 
mature  seed  vessel ;  e,  mature 
seed. 


RED   CLOVER  389 

if  the  latter  be  moist  so  as  to  stimulate  much  vegetative 
growth.  PammePs  investigations  in  Iowa  did  not,  how- 
ever, disclose  any  definite  relations  between  the  character 
of  the  soil  and  the  number  of  seeds  to  a  head.  Sunshiny, 
warm  days  at  blooming  time  insure  a  greater  abundance 
of  pollinizing  insects,  and  these  are  absent  in  cold,  wet 
weather. 

Where  the  first  crop  is  cut  for  hay,  the  time  of  cutting 
may  affect  markedly  the  subsequent  seed  crop.  Clover 
hay  is  usually  cut  when  the  first  heads  turn  brown,  but  the 
belief  is  general  that  the  seed  crop  is  apt  to  be  better  if  the 
hay  crop  is  cut  a  little  before  full  bloom,  as  this  makes  the 
second  growth  stronger. 

Where  the  season  is  not  long  enough  to  secure  both  a 
hay  crop  and  a  seed  crop,  as  in  the  northern  tier  of  states, 
it  is  a  common  practice  to  pasture  the  field  or  to  clip  it 
back  in  June,  so  as  to  bring  the  seed  crop  in  September. 
It  is  claimed  that  by  this  means  better  yields  of  seed  are 
obtained.  Among  the  advantages  supposed  to  be  secured 
are :  1.  A  more  even  ripening  of  the  crop ;  2.  A  more 
favorable  season  for  blooming  and  seed  setting ;  3.  Lessen- 
ing of  injury  by  the  clover  midge  and  the  clover  chalcis; 
4.  A  smaller  growth,  which  is  not  likely  to  lodge  and  is 
more  easily  handled.  Experimental  data  on  this  subject 
are  lacking. 

Prolonged  rains  at  harvest  time  seem  to  be  the  cause 
of  many  of  the  seeds  turning  brown.  Seeds  that  have 
turned  brown  with  age  do  not  germinate  nearly  as  well  as 
yellow  or  violet-tinged  seeds. 

460.  Harvesting  the  seed  crop. — Red  clover  for  seed 
should  be  cut  when  the  heads  have  all  turned  brown,  and 
the  seeds  are  firm  and  shining.  Cutting  in  the  soft  dough 
stage  results  in  shriveled  seed.  If  the  seeds  are  allowed 


390        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

to  ripen,  there  is  no  loss  by  shattering,  but  the  heads 
break  off  very  easily.  If  the  clover  has  become  riper  than 
stated,  much  loss  of  heads  can  be  prevented  by  mowing 
in  the  early  morning  when  wet  with  dew. 

Mowing  may  be  accomplished  in  several  different  ways. 
A  self -rake  reaper  is  very  satisfactory.  An  ordinary  mower 
with  a  bunching  attachment  (Fig.  42)  that  throws  the 
bunches  of  clover  to  one  side  so  that  they  may  not  be 
trampled  upon,  is  also  excellent.  Heading  machines 
which  cut  tho  straw  high  are  sometimes  used,  and  these 

are  particularly  de- 
sirable, as  they  econo- 
mize labor  and  cut 
much  less  straw  to  be 
thrashed. 

Red  clover  is  most 
commonly    harvested, 

FIG.  42.  —  A  bunching  attachment  on  an      however      by    mowing 
ordinary  mower.  .  . 

and  then  raking  into 

windrows,  using  practically  the  same  method  as  in  har- 
vesting hay. 

In  favorable  weather  the  clover  is  ready  to  store  or  hull 
in  about  four  days  if  cut  in  the  late  dough  stage.  The 
bunches  should  then  be  piled  in  cocks,  or  better,  placed 
under  cover.  During  unfavorable  weather  there  is  some 
danger  of  the  seed  sprouting  if  the  clover  is  kept  contin- 
uously damp. 

In  the  principal  seed-growing  districts,  special  machines 
called  clover  hullers  are  used  to  thrash  the  seed  and  shell 
it  from  the  pods.  This  can  be  done  only  when  the  straw 
is  very  dry. 

461.  Yields  of  seed.  —  The  yield  of  seed  to  an  acre  for 
the  main  part  of  the  clover  area  probably  averages  about 


RED   CLOVER  391 

100  pounds,  and  rarely  reaches  300  pounds.  Yields  have 
been  reported  by  experiment  stations,  as  follows :  North 
Dakota,  46  to  146  pounds ;  Oregon,  175  to  250  pounds. 

For  the  Willamette  Valley,  Oregon,  Hunter  reports  the 
usual  yield  4  to  6  bushels,  and  occasionally  7  to  9  bushels 
to  an  acre. 

The  average  yield  of  seed  in  Wisconsin  in  1905  was 
1.84  bushels  to  an  acre,  but  this  was  somewhat  lower  than 
usual.  In  northern  Wisconsin,  a  maximum  yield  of  4J 
bushels  to  an  acre  is  reported. 

Werner  gives  the  yields  in  Germany  at  150  to  225  pounds 
to  an  acre. 

462.  Statistics  of  seed  crop.  —  The  total  yield  of  clover 
seed  in  the  United  States  in  1899  was  1,349,209  bushels 
valued  at  $5,359,578.     In  1909  the  corresponding  figures 
were     1,025,816    bushels    valued     at     $6,925,122.     The 
principal  seed-producing  states  in  the  order  of  the  total 
yield  produced  were,  in  the  latter  year,  Wisconsin,  Ohio, 
Michigan,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Missouri,  Minnesota,  Iowa, 
Oregon. 

Clover  seed  has  been  an  article  of  export  from  the  United 
States  since  1792. 

463.  Value   of  the   straw.  —  The  straw  of  red   clover 
from  which  the  seed  has  been  thrashed  possesses  but  little 
feeding    value,    and    is    both    coarse    and    unpalatable. 
Usually  much  of  its  little  feeding  value  is  diminished  by 
being  rained  upon.     Animals  will,  however,  eat  some  of 
the  straw,  and  this,  combined  with  its  value  for  bedding, 
makes  it  worth  saving. 

Perhaps  the  best  use  to  make  of  the  straw  is  for  bed- 
ding, but  it  is  often  scattered  directly  on  the  field. 

464.  Seed.  —  Seed  of  red  clover  (Fig.  43)  is  readily  dis- 
tinguished from  similar  leguminous  seeds  by  its  color ; 


392        FOE  AGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 


which  is  yellow  or  violet,  or  both  combined.  Old  seeds 
become  dull  and  brownish. 

The  seed  may  be  adulterated  with  yellow  trefoil ; 
with  old  red  clover  seeds  sometimes  oiled  and  polished; 
and  with  small  or  shriveled  seed  obtained  in  screenings. 
Where  cheaper  foreign  clover  seed  has  been  added  to 
American  seed  it  may  be  detected  by  the  presence  of  cer- 
tain weed  seeds.  A 
3  large  proportion  of 

small  seeds  indicates 
that  these  have  been 
added. 

The  most  objection- 
able weed  seeds  that 
may  occur  in  red  clover 
are  dodder,  Canada 
thistle,  curled  dock, 
buckhorn  and  oxeye- 
daisy. 

The  best  commercial 
red  clover  seed  may 
attain  a  purity  of  99 
per  cent  and  a  viability 

of  98  per  cent.  Good  seeds  germinate  in  from  2  to  6 
days,  excepting  the  "  hard  "  seeds.  The  percentage  of 
hard  see.ds  is  often  20  per  cent  and  may  reach  50  per 
cent  in  very  fresh  seeds. 

The  seed  varies  in  weight  from  60  to  63  pounds  a 
bushel.  One  pound  contains  279,000  seeds  (Stebler), 
232,000  seeds  (Hunter),  200,000  to  240,000  seeds  (Hunt). 
The  optimum  temperature  for  germination  was  found 
by  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College  to  be  90°  Fahrenheit, 
At  95°  the  vitality  was  distinctly  impaired. 


FIG.  43.  —  Seeds  of  red  clover.  1,  side 
view  and,  2,  edge  view  of  seeds  ;  3,  the 
triangular  form  indicatod  ;  4,  a  seed  cut 
lengthwise  ;  5,  a  seed  cut  crosswise,  show- 
ing the  embryo ;  a,  a  seed  scar ;  b,  a 
stemlet  (radicle)  of  the  embryo ;  c,  seed 
leaves  (cotyledons)  of  the  embryo ;  6,  a 
pod  of  red  clover;  7,  natural  size  of 
seeds. 


RED   CLOVER  393 

Hiltner  and  Kingel  examined  a  sample  of  red  clover 
seed  that  had  been  stored  8  years.  It  was  separated  into 
three  lots  :  first,  those  which  were  apparently  unchanged  ; 
second,  those  which  were  pale  in  color ;  and  third,  those 
which  were  brown  and  more  or  less  shriveled.  Of  the 
first  lot  10.5  per  cent  germinated  and  81.9  per  cent  re- 
mained hard.  In  the  other  lots  the  germination  ranged 
from  1.7  to  8.1  per  cent.  By  scratching  the  seed  coats 
of  those  that  remained  hard,  it  was  found  that  nearly  all 
were  viable. 

465.  Color  of  seeds.  —  The  seeds  of  red  clover  are 
either  pure  yellow  or  more  or  less  completely  tinged  with 
violet,  but  never  wholly  violet.  There  is  a  popular 
belief  that  violet-tinged  seed  is  superior  in  viability  and 
vigor.  This  subject  has  received  attention  from  various 
investigators. 

Gernert  in  Illinois  finds  that  white-flowered  plants 
produce  yellow  seeds  without  trace  of  purple.  Plants 
with  dark  red  flowers  yield  invariably  seeds  much  tinged 
with  violet,  while  those  with  pink  flowers  in  some  cases 
produced  yellow  seeds.  The  violet  color  appears  late, 
and  may  not  show  in  prematurely  gathered  seeds.  Five 
plants  were  selected,  each  with  a  different  seed  color; 
namely,  pea ;  purple  tint  on  yellow ;  reddish-purple  on 
yellow;  medium  purple  on  yellow;  dark  purple  on 
yellow.  The  progeny  of  each  of  these  showed  a  wide 
range  as  regards  seed  color,  indicating  that  the  parent 
plants  were  heterozygote  as  regards  seed  color.  The 
data  suggest  that  the  character  is  a  Mendelian  one,  and 
that  it  is  entirely  feasible  to  isolate  strains  with  violet- 
tinged  seeds. 

Friiwirth  in  Austria  concludes  that  there  is  a  tendency 
for  clover  plants  to  produce  seeds  of  one  color.  Thus 


394        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

one  plant  produced  160  deep  yellow  and  445  yellow  seeds ; 
another,  154  violet,  125  variegated,  58  deep  yellow  and  11 
yellow  seeds  ;  a  third,  177  deep  yellow  and  366  yellow  seeds  ; 
a  fourth,  131  variegated  and  47  deep  yellow  seeds.  Yel- 
low seeds  are  more  likely  to  breed  true  than  violet-tinged 
seeds.  In  weight,  violet  seeds  are  heaviest,  followed  by 
variegated  and  yellow.  He  obtained  a  higher  yield  of 
air-dry  substance  in  the  crop  from  yellow  seeds  than  from 
either  violet  or  variegated,  a  result  in  accord  with  that 
of  the  Kentucky  Experiment  Station. 

Card  in  Rhode  Island  analyzed  plants  grown  from  yel- 
low seeds  and  from  purple  seeds,  but  found  no  difference 
in  their  nitrogen  content. 

466.  Roots.  —  The  roots  of  red  clover  penetrate  to  a 
maximum  depth  of  about  six  feet,  but  ordinarily  not 
more  than  four  feet.  Hays  at  the  Minnesota  Experiment 
Station  found  that  the  tap  root  was  7  inches  long  after 

1  month,  2  feet  after  2  months,  and  after  five  months  5J 
feet.     The  lateral  roots  were  a  little  deeper  than  the  main 
root. 

The  greater  part  of  the  roots  is  in  the  top  six  inches 
of  soil  and  according  to  all  investigations  about  95  per 
cent  in  the  top  8  inches.  Thus,  John  in  Germany  found 
the  following  vertical  distribution  :  — 

7.8  to    9.0  cm.  deep  —    3760  kg.  to  a  hectare. 

15.7  to  18.3  cm.  deep  338  kg.  to  a  hectare. 

27.4  to  28.8  cm.  deep  196  kg.  to  a  hectare. 

36.6  to  39.2  cm.  deep  78  kg.  to  a  hectare. 

At  the  Utah  Experiment  Station  the  weight  of  roots 
was  estimated  for  each  inch  of  depth  in  fields  respectively 

2  years  old  and  4  years  old.     The  basis  was  the  weight  of 
roots  obtained  from  an  area  2  feet  square :  — 


RED   CLOVER 


395 


TABLE  SHOWING  WEIGHT  (IN  POUNDS)  OF  RED  CLOVER  ROOTS  TO 
AN  ACRE  FOR  EACH  INCH  OF  DEPTH,  UTAH  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


DEPTH 

4  YEARS  OLD 

2  YEARS  OLD 

Inches 

Water-free 

Water-free 

1 

1058.4 

240.7 

2 

1248.5 

449.3 

3 

1181. 

433.9 

4 

1142  .4 

170.9 

5 

508.8 

149.3 

6 

124.8 

137.5 

7 

88.8 

8 

66.3 

9 

62.2 

10 

50.4 

11 

50.2 

12 

48.5 

Total  . 

5630.3 

1581.6 

At  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station,  Snyder  found  in 
a  square  yard  of  earth  that  clover  roots  when  water-free 
weighed :  122  grams  just  before  the  heads  appeared ; 
320  grams  in  early  bloom ;  and  916  grams  in  full  bloom. 

At  the  Delaware  Experiment  Station,  Penny  determined 
that  the  roots  8  inches  deep  weighed,  air-dry,  1185  pounds, 
and  the  next  4  inches  27  pounds,  the  whole  containing  33 
pounds  nitrogen.  The  tops  weighed  2819  pounds. 

At  the  Connecticut  Experiment  Station  Woods  esti- 
mated the  roots  8  inches  deep  to  contain  850  pounds, 
and  those  in  the  subsoil  48  pounds  of  dry  matter.  At 
Middletown,  Connecticut,  a  crop  was  determined  to  have 
1355  pounds  of  dry  matter  in  the  roots. 

467.  Shoots.  —  The  main  axis  of  the  red  clover  is  a 
rather  deep-seated,  short  crown,  from  which  arise  a  dense 


396        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR    CULTURE 

mass  of  basal  leaves.  From  the  axils  of  each  of  these,  a 
secondary  leafy  aerial  branch  may  arise,  and  these  con- 
stitute the  larger  visible  portion  of  the  plants.  Each  sec- 
ondary branch  is  terminated  by  a  head  of  flowers,  but 
commonly  bears  also  tertiary  branches  each  terminated 
by  a  head  of  flowers.  One  shoot  may  thus  bear  as  high 
as  14  heads  of  flowers. 

The  height  of  the  secondary  branches  varies  with  the 
fertility  of  the  soil,  but  they  seldom  exceed  30  inches  under 
field  conditions.  The  number  is  usually  from  10  to  20, 
but  as  many  as  76  have  been  found  on  a  single  plant. 
After  cutting,  the  branches  die  back  as  far  as  the  lowest 
internodes. 

In  winter  the  hibernating  shoots  lie  close  to  the  ground. 

Werner  found  that  a  well-grown  plant  with  108  leaves 
had  a  surface  area  of  712  square  centimeters.  Von  Gahren 
in  a  similar  examination  found  875  square  centimeters. 

468.  Proportion  of  roots  to  shoots.  —  Several  investi- 
gators have  determined  the  relative  proportion  of  the 
different  parts  of  the  clover  plant. 

At  the  Arkansas  Experiment  Station  single  plants 
showed  an  average  dry  weight  of  two  ounces  for  the 
tops  and  2J  ounces  for  the  roots.  Smith  in  Michigan 
examined  plants  of  red  clover  at  the  end  of  September. 
Those  sown  the  previous  spring  had  4.625  pounds  of  tops 
and  .75  pound  of  roots,  while  those  sown  the  year  before 
in  June  had  .1.5  pounds  of  tops  to  1.44  pounds  of  roots, 
in  each  case  weighed  when  fresh.  King  in  Wisconsin 
estimated  the  green  weight  of  the  tops  to  an  acre  at 
12,486  pounds  and  of  the  roots  at  3120  pounds.  The 
data  used  for  the  estimates  were  obtained  by  driving 
down  a  cylinder  12  inches  in  diameter  and  30  inches 
long.  Snyder  in  Minnesota  estimated  that  an  acre  field 


RED   CLOVER 


397 


yielding  4000  pounds  of  hay  contained  1760  pounds  of 
dry  roots.  At  the  Delaware  Experiment  Station  the 
tops  and  roots  to  an  acre  were  determined  respectively 
at  2819  and  1212  pounds  dry  weight. 

At  the  Central  Experiment  Farm,  Canada,  the  roots 
were  dug  from  areas  4  feet  square  and  9  inches  deep  on 
seven  different  plots.  The  estimated  green  weights  to  an 
acre  are  shown  in  the  following  table :  — 

ESTIMATED  GREEN  WEIGHT  OF  TOPS  AND  ROOTS  TO  AN  ACRE, 
CANADA  CENTRAL  EXPERIMENT  FARM 


PLOTS 

LEAVES  AND  STEMS 

ROOTS 

RATE  OF  SEEDING 

1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
Total     .     . 

Pounds 

5441 
6849 
6934 
8508 
7997 
7657 
10209 

Pounds 

5105 
5147 
6047 
5785 
5615 
4349 
6296 

4  pounds 
4  pounds 
4  pounds 
4  pounds 
4  pounds 
4  pounds 
14  pounds 

53595 

38344 

469.  Relative  proportions  of  stems,  leaves  and  flower 
heads.  —  Dietrich  in  Germany  studied  the  relative  per- 
centage weights  of  leaves,  stems  and  flower  heads  at  dif- 
ferent ages.  The  following  results  were  secured  :  — 


MARCH  31 

APRIL  26 

MAY  19 

JUNE  1 

JUNE  16 

FLOWER- 

LEAVES 

STEMS 

BUDS 

FIRST 

FULL 

ING 

FORMING 

FORMING 

FORMING 

FLOWERS 

BLOOM 

FINISHED 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Leaves    .     .     . 

40 

41 

24 

24 

19 

18 

Leaf  stalks 

60 

29 

14 

12 

11 

10 

Stems     .     .     . 

— 

30 

58 

58 

59 

60 

Flower  heads 

— 

— 

4 

6 

11 

12 

398        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

From  these  figures,  clover  hay  should  consist  of  about 
60  per  cent  stems,  30  per  cent  leaves  and  10  per  cent 
flower  heads. 

470.  Diseases.  —  Red  clover  is  subject  to  a  long  list 
of  fungous  diseases,  few  of  which  are,  however,  a  serious 
menace  to  its  culture.     Only  the  more  important  and  more 
common  ones  are  here  mentioned. 

The  leaves  may  be  affected  by  clover  leaf-spot  (Pseu- 
dopeziza  trifolii) ;  black  spot  (Polythrincium  trifolii) ; 
powdery  mildew  (Erysiphe  polygoni) ;  downy  mildew 
(Peronospora  trifoliorum) ;  and  clover  rust  ( Uromyces 
striatus).  It  is  rare  that  any  of  these  diseases  causes  much 
damage. 

The  roots  are  subject  to  a  root  rot  (Rhizoctonia  violacea). 

The  stems  are  sometimes  injured  by  stem  rot  (Sclero- 
tinia  trifoliorum)  which  is  easily  recognizable  by  the  large 
dark  sclerotia  formed.  Clover  anthracnose  (Colleto- 
trichum  trifolii)  is  probably  the  most  destructive  disease 
that  has  attacked  red  clover  in  America.  It  appears  as 
purplish  spots  on  the  stem  which  increase  in  size  until  the 
stem  is  girdled  and  thus  killed.  It  is  known  to  occur  in 
Maryland,  Virginia,  Ohio,  Tennessee  and  Alabama,  and 
is  probably  much  more  widely  spread.  No  direct  means 
of  control  is  known,  but  results  secured  at  the  Tennessee 
Experiment  Station  show  that  highly  resistant  strains 
may  be  secured  by  selection. 

Two  other  anthracnoses,  caused  respectively  by  Colle- 
totrichum  cereale  and  Gloeosporium  trifolii,  are  also  found 
occasionally,  but  no  serious  damage  by  either  has  been 
reported. 

471.  Clover  sickness.  —  This  term  is  used  to  designate 
a  condition  or  conditions  which  prevent  the  successful 
growing  of  red  clover,  at  least  continuously.     This  has 


RED   CLOVER  399 

long  been  recognized  in  Europe,  where  numerous  explana- 
tions as  to  its  cause  have  been  advanced.  The  principal 
theories  are  :  1.  The  exhaustion  of  some  necessary  element 
from  the  soil,  in  particular  lime,  potash  or  phosphorus  ; 
2.  The  formation  or  excretion  by  the  clover  plant  of  some 
deleterious  substance ;  3.  Unfavorable  physical  condition 
of  the  soil,  especially  the  subsoil ;  4.  Presence  of  disease- 
forming  fungi  or  bacteria;  5.  Injurious  insects  and  other 
animals ;  5.  Depletion  of  humus  content  of  the  soil. 

None  of  these  theories  has  been  proven,  but  it  is  not 
unlikely  that  there  may  be  some  truth  in  each  of  them. 

Experience  in  Europe  has  shown  that  good  clover  may 
be  grown  on  clover-sick  soil  if  a  sufficient  interval  of  time 
elapse.  In  Germany  this  is  usually  four  to  six  years, 
but  on  some  soils  a  period  of  nine  or  even  twelve  years 
seems  necessary. 

It  is  not  certain  that  the  increasing  difficulty  in  secur- 
ing a  stand  of  red  clover  in  various  parts  of  the  United 
States  is  the  same  as  the  European  clover  sickness,  but 
this  seems  highly  probable.  The  evidence  indicates  that 
the  trouble  first  became  prominent  in  the  Atlantic  States 
and  has  been  slowly  extending  westward.  Even  in  regions 
where  clover  sickness  is  common,  land  that  has  long  been 
uncultivated  will  often  produce  good  crops  of  red  clover 
for  a  few  years.  Alsike  clover,  however,  grows  readily  on 
land  "  sick  "  to  red  clover,  and  in  many  places  is  now 
substituted  for  the  red. 

Soil  acidity  has  recently  been  considered  to  be  a  cause 
of  failure  with  red  clover,  but  lime  has  not  proven  to  be 
a  remedy  for  the  trouble.  It  has  not  yet  been  demon- 
strated that  the  European  practice  of  planting  red  clover 
at  long  intervals  will  be  equally  successful  in  this  country. 

In  England  the  question  has  been  raised  as  to  whether 


400        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

land  becomes  sick  to  naturalized  wild  plants  of  red  and 
white  clover.  Several  experiments  have  shown  that 
clover  plants  grown  from  cultivated  seeds  disappear 
largely  in  1  year,  while  those  from  wild  plants  persist  3 
to  5  years  or  more.  One  experiment  with  red  clover 
resulted  in  the  plants  from  cultivated  seeds  lasting  but 
2  years,  while  those  grown  from  seed  gathered  in  an  old 
meadow  lived  5  or  6  years. 

472.  Reduction  of  acreage  probably  due  mainly  to  clover 
sickness. — The  statistics  of  the  thirteenth  census  of  the 
United  States,  1909,  shows  that  a  great  decrease  in  the  acre- 
age of  clovers  has  taken  place  since  1899,  especially  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  country.  Every  state  east  of  the  95th 
degree  of  longitude,  excepting  Illinois,  shows  such  a  decrease. 

The  average  decrease  in  the  acreage  of  "  clover  "  for 
the  whole  United  States  was  40  per  cent.  In  certain 
states  the  decrease  was  much  greater,  being  88  per  cent 
in  New  Jersey,  78  per  cent  in  Pennsylvania  and  65  per 
cent  in  Indiana.  In  the  states  immediately  west  of  the 
Mississippi  River  the  decrease  was  not  so  great,  but  is  30 
per  cent  in  Missouri,  23  per  cent  in  Minnesota  and  16  per 
cent  in  Iowa.  In  the  states  farther  west  the  figures  are  of 
less  interest,  owing  to  the  large  acreage  of  new  land  brought 
under  cultivation  and  the  general  preference  for  alfalfa. 

While  the  significance  of  the  figures  is  not  wholly  clear, 
the  most  probable  explanation  is  that  it  is  associated  with 
the  increasing  difficulty  in  securing  stands  of  red  clover. 
The  striking  contrast  in  the  figures  for  1899  and  1909 
may  in  part  be  due  to  unusual  conditions  in  the  latter 
year  —  but  it  does  not  appear  from  records  that  there 
was  undue  loss  from  winter-killing  or  other  climatic  causes 
in  that  year.  The  extent  of  the  reduction  in  acreage  is 
shown  in  the  following  table  :  — • 


BED   CLOVER 


401 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  ACREAGE  OF  CLOVERS  IN  THE  EASTERN 
PART  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  IN  1899  AND  1909 


CLOVER 

A.CREAGE 

DECREASE 

1899 

1909 

PER  CENT 

New  England  States     .     . 
New  York  
New  Jersey      
Pennsylvania,  
Ohio  . 
Indiana  
Michigan    
Iowa  

18,681 
103,155 
57.635 
293,683 
617,516 
776,810 
225,636 
148,720 

15,097 
87,267 
6,893 
64,372 
181,048 
271,697 
168,180 
125,751 

19 
15 
88 
78 
71 
65 
25 
16 

IVlinnesota                       .     * 

74669 

67,358 

23 

Wisconsin  
West  Virginia  
IVlaryland              ...» 

203,253 
25,170 
67375 

119,522 
6,661 
26  545 

41 
73 
60 

Virginia      

104  124 

54016 

48 

JViissouri 

377  228 

262  263 

30 

United  States 

4  103  968 

2  443  263 

40 

In  Illinois  the  acreage  in  1899  was  362,044,  while  in 
1909  it  was  427,957,  an  increase  of  over  18  per  cent. 

473.  Insects.  —  There  are  five  insects  which  cause  rather 
serious  damage  to  red  clover,  one  of  them  attacking  the 
root,  one  the  foliage,  one  the  hay,  one  the  flower  and  one 
the  seed. 

The  clover  root-borer  (Hylastinus  obscurus). —  The 
clover  root-borer  is  easily  recognized  from  the  fact  that 
its  larva  burrows  in  the  root,  thus  greatly  injuring  and 
sometimes  killing  the  plant.  The  damage  is  nearly  al- 
ways done  in  plants  the  second  season,  after  the  roots  have 
attained  a  considerable  size.  The  only  remedy  suggested 

2D 


402 


FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 


is  to  plow  under  the  clover  immediately  after  the  first 
crop  of  hay  is  cut.  With  the  death  of  the  plant  the  larvae 
also  die.  If,  however,  the  plowing  is  delayed  until  later, 
the  larvae  may  have  attained  their  growth  and  will  then 
develop  into  adults. 

The  clover-leaf  weevil  (Phytonomus  punctatus).  — 
This  little  beetle  and  its  larvae  feed  on  the  foliage  of  red 
clover  in  early  spring.  The  damage  is  seldom  serious, 
and  in  any  event  serves  mainly  to  delay  the  maturing  of 
the  plant. 

The  clover-flower  midge  (Dasyneura  leguminicola) . — • 
This  little  two-winged  fly  lays  its  eggs  in  the  blossoms  and 
the  maggot  injures  the  blossoms  so  that  seeds  are  not 
formed.  One  method  of  control  suggested  is  to  cut  the 
hay  early,  as  this  will  destroy  many  of  the  larvae  before 
they  have  time  to  develop  further. 
When  clover  is  grown  primarily  for 
seed,  sometimes  the  first  crop  is 
clipped  so  as  to  bring  the  blooming 
of  the  next  crop  later  in  the  summer, 
in  this  way  avoiding  much  injury 
by  the  midge. 

The  clover-seed  chalcis  fly  (Brucho- 
phagus  funebris).  — This  is  a  small, 
black,  wasp-like   insect  whose  larva 
,  FlG-  4,t'~  ~ke,tchf    develops   in  the  clover  seed,  all  of 

showing    the    effect    of  .        *\ 

the  clover-seed  chalcis  which  is  eaten  excepting  the  hard 
shell.  The  work  of  this  insect  is 
conspicuous  by  the  finding  of  hollow 

ture  insect  is  shown  in  seedg  each  containing  a  round  hole 
the  act  of  emerging. 

through  which  the  adult  has  emerged 
(Fig.  44).  The  only  remedy  suggested  is  pasturing  the 
crop  in  early  spring,  or  clipping  the  first  crop  so  as  to 


fly.  Calyx  (a),  seed  cap- 
sule (b)  and  seeds  (c 
and  d).  At  c  the  ma- 


RED   CLOVER  403 

make  the  seed  crop  at  a  time  when  the  fly  is  not 
abundant. 

The  clover-hay  worm  (Hypsopygia  costalis). — This  is 
the  larva  of  a  small,  brown  moth  which  feeds  on  the  dry 
hay  in  storage.  Most  of  the  damage  is  usually  done  near 
the  bottom  of  hay  stacks  or  mows.  To  some  extent,  it 
may  be  prevented  by  salting  the  hay,  especially  near  the 
bottom  of  the  stack.  Where  hay  is  stacked  in  the  field, 
the  injury  is  much  lessened  by  building  the  stacks  on  a 
foundation  of  logs,  or  other  platform. 

474.  Improvement  of  red  clover  by  breeding.  —  In 
recent  years  there  has  been  much  interest  in  the  subject 
of  breeding  improved  red  clover.  Individual  plants  differ 
greatly  and  this  permits  of  selection  for  numerous  dis- 
tinctive characters.  More  or  less  work  of  this  kind  has 
been  conducted  at  the  experiment  stations  of  Tennessee, 
Illinois,  Iowa,  Indiana  and  North  Dakota  and  by  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  In  Europe 
similar  breeding  researches  have  been  undertaken  in 
Sweden,  Denmark  and  Switzerland. 

Breeding  red  clover  presents  difficulties  in  that  cross- 
pollination  is  required  and  that,  therefore,  at  least  two 
individuals  are  necessary  to  start  a  strain.  Furthermore, 
isolation  is  then  required  to  prevent  miscellaneous  cross- 
pollination. 

Mass  selection  is  much  simpler,  especially  where  an 
unfavorable  factor  eliminates  a  large  proportion  of  the 
population.  In  this  way  a  strain  resistant  to  anthracnose 
has  been  developed  at  the  Tennessee  Experiment  Station. 

Card  in  Rhode  Island  found  that  the  nitrogen  content 
of  different  individual  plants  ranged  from  2.86  per  cent 
to  4.62  per  cent.  This  suggests  the  possibility  of  select- 
ing strains  with  high  protein  content. 


404        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 

475.  Disease-resistant  strains.  —  There  have  been  but 
few  attempts  made  to  secure  strains  of  red  clover  immune 
to  disease.  Bain,  at  the  Tennessee  Experiment  Station, 
has,  however,  thus  bred  a  strain  resistant  to  anthracnose 
(Colletotrichum  trifolii)  by  selecting  plants  not  affected 
by  the  disease.  Apparently  the  same  result  was  reached 
by  Clarendon  Davis,  in  northern  Alabama,  by  merely 
saving  the  seed  each  year  from  the  surviving  plants. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

OTHER   CLOVERS.— ALSIKE,   HUNGARIAN, 
WHITE   AND   SWEET 

THE  genus  Trifolium  comprises  a  large  list  of  species 
both  annual  and  perennial,  all  of  them  confined  to  regions 
of  temperate  climate  or  at  least  temperate  during  the  grow- 
ing period.  Red  clover  is  by  far  the  most  important  eco- 
nomic species,  but  where  there  is  difficulty  in  growing  this 
crop  other  species,  especially  alsike  and  white  clover,  are 
very  valuable  substitutes.  The  clover-like  plants  of  the 
genus  Melilotus  are  also  useful  and  worthy  of  more  atten- 
tion than  they  have  heretofore  received. 

ALSIKE  CLOVER  (Trifolium  hybridum) 

476.  Botany  of  alsike.  - —  The  alsike  clover  is  so  named 
from  a  place  in  Sweden  where  it  is  much  grown.  It  is 
also  called  Swedish  clover.  The  scientific  name  was  so 
given  because  Linnaeus  erroneously  believed  it  to  be  a 
hybrid  between  red  clover  and  white  clover. 

Alsike  is  native  to  the  temperate  portions  of  Europe 
and  Asia  and  also  occurs  in  Algiers.  It  is  rare,  however, 
in  southern  Europe.  The  plant  is  very  variable,  but 
only  a  few  forms  have  received  botanical  names.  Ascher- 
son  and  Graebner  consider  that  cultivated  alsike  is  a  sub- 
species (Trifolium  fistulosum  Gilibert),  differing  through 
long  cultivation  in  having  larger,  less  toothed  leaves, 
larger  heads  and  longer  calyx  teeth.  Another  subspecies 

405 


406        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 

is   Trifolium  elegans  Savi,  with  rose-colored  flowers   and 
other  slight  differences. 

In  recent  years  the  improvement  of  alsike  by  selection 
has  been  undertaken  at  Svalof  and  other  places  in  Europe. 

477.  Agricultural     history.  —  Alsike     has    long     been 
cultivated  in  Sweden,   probably  as  early   as   1750.     Its 
spread  into  other  countries  was,  however,  quite  recent. 
In  England  and  Scotland  the  first  clear  record  is  1832. 

Alsike  seed  was  distributed  in  the  United  States  by  the 
Patent  Office  in  1854,  but  it  was  probably  introduced 
earlier.  The  plant  was  called  alsike  in  Scotland  as  early 
as  1832. 

478.  Adaptations.  —  Alsike  clover  is  adapted  to  a  wider 
range  of  both  climatic  and  soil  conditions  than  red  clover, 
and  nearly  as  great  as  that  of  white  clover.     It  thrives 
especially  well  in  cool  climates  with  abundant  moisture. 
It  rarely  winter-kills  and  often  survives  winter  conditions 
that  destroy  red  clover.     On  the  whole  it  is,  perhaps,  as 
resistant  to  drought  as  red  clover,  but  drought  reduces 
its  yield  greatly.     It  endures  both  cold  and  heat  better 
than  red  clover. 

It  is  not  particular  as  to  soil,  provided  abundant  mois- 
ture is  available,  thriving  well  on  clay,  clay  loams,  sandy 
loams  and  muck  soils.  Unlike  most  clovers,  it  will  thrive 
even  where  the  soil  is  waterlogged.  On  this  account  it 
is  also  well  adapted  to  growing  under  irrigation. 

Alsike  is  peculiar  in  that  it  will  thrive  where  red  clover 
culture  has  dwindled  on  account  of  "  clover  sickness  " ; 
a  trouble  that  seems  never  to  affect  alsike,  and  which 
permits  its  frequent  or  almost  continuous  use  on  the 
same  land. 

479.  Characteristics   of  alsike   clover.  —  It  is   a  long- 
lived  perennial,  fields  enduring  4  to  6  years  in  good  soil. 


OTHER   CLOVERS  407 

The  stems  are  erect  or  ascending  when  crowded,  but  in 
isolated  plants  are  spreading.  The  herbage  is  smooth  and 
decidedly  more  leafy  than  red  clover.  The  hay  consists 
of  about  60  per  cent  leaves  and  40  per  cent  stems.  Werner 
records  168  leaves  on  8  branches,  with  a  total  flat  surface 
of  504  square  centimeters.  Under  favorable  conditions 
it  reaches  a  height  of  2J  feet  in  the  mass,  but  is  usually 
less.  On  account  of  the  dense  growth  the  lower  leaves  are 
apt  to  decay,  especially  where  growing  in  wet  land.  The 
root  system  is  relatively  shallow,  and  on  this  account  the 
plant  does  not  well  withstand  drought. 

Hays  at  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station  found  that  the 
tap  root  after  one  month  was  9J  inches  long  and  after  two 
months  more  than  2  feet.  It  does  not  remain  prominent  as 
many  of  the  secondary  roots  become  as  large.  The  mass  of 
roots  is  greater  at  the  same  age  than  that  of  red  clover. 

The  growth  begins  later  in  spring  than  red  clover, 
and  the  blooming  time  is  also  somewhat  later.  .Isolated 
plants  often  measure  one  foot  in  diameter,  and  in  closely 
grazed  pastures  resemble  white  clover  somewhat  in  habit. 

480.  Regional  strains.  —  There  is  but  very  little  dif- 
ference in  alsike,  depending  on  the  source  from  which  seed 
is  obtained,  according  to  the  results  secured  by  Stebler 
and  Volkart  in  Switzerland.     Plots  sown  with  American 
seed  gave  slightly  better  results  the  first  year,  but  in  the 
second  year  the  results  showed  no  definite  superiority. 

In  extensive  trials  at  the  Danish  Experiment  Station 
the  relative  yields  of  regional  strains  were  as  follows : 
Swedish,  100;  Rhine,  98;  English,  97;  German,  91; 
Canadian,  83 ;  American,  80. 

481.  Importance.  —  Alsike    clover    has    been    growing 
in  importance  in  America  in  recent  years,  mainly  because 
it  succeeds  well  on  land  that  will  no  longer  grow  red  clover 


408         FORAGE  PLANTS   AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

on  account  of  "  clover  sickness."  Apart  from  this  it  is 
valuable  for  growing  on  land  too  wet  for  red  clover  and 
in  mixed  hay  meadows  because  of  its  longer  life. 

No  accurate  statistical  information  is  available,  but 
alsike  is  probably  most  abundantly  grown  in  the  following 
states  and  provinces ;  namely,  Ontario,  Wisconsin,  Mich- 
igan, Minnesota,  Ohio,  New  York,  Maryland,  Virginia. 

482.  Culture.  —  The  culture  of  alsike  differs  but  little 
from  that  of  red  clover,  and  it  may  be  used  for  the  same 
purposes.     Seed  is  sown  alone  or  with  a  nurse-crop,  either 
in  fall  or  in  spring.     In  Europe  winter  seeding  is  a  com- 
mon method.     The  rate  of  seeding  is  8  to  12  pounds  an 
acre,  if  seeded  alone.     Fields  last  well  for  two  or  three 
years  and  often  for  four  or  five  years.     Usually  the  sec- 
ond season  gives  the  best  yields. 

Alsike  is,  however,  best  adapted  to  growing  in  mixtures, 
especially  in  low  or  wet  soils.  In  mixtures  the  alsike 
is  abundant  for  two  years  and  then  rapidly  disappears. 

483.  Hay.  —  Alsike  may  be  cut  for  hay  over  a  longer 
period  than  red  clover,  as  the  main  stems  continue  to 
grow  with  the  production  of  new  flowers.     It  is  usually 
recommended  to  cut  when  in  full  bloom.     Under  favor- 
able circumstances  two  cuttings  are  obtained,   but  the 
second  is  nearly  always  smaller  than  the  first.     If  the 
cutting  of  the  first  crop  is  delayed,  the  second  is  reduced. 

German  records  of  hay  yields  are  as  follows :  Pinckert, 
4000  to  5600  pounds  to  an  acre ;  Werner,  2600  to  4500 
pounds ;  Schober,  for  the  first  cutting,  3000  pounds. 

Yields  on  an  acre  are  recorded  by  American  experiment 
stations  as  follows  :  Pennsylvania,  3956  pounds ;  Kansas, 
3110  pounds;  Illinois,  2400  pounds;  Michigan  Upper 
Peninsula,  6800  pounds ;  Minnesota,  5860  pounds ; 
Utah,  2780  pounds. 


OTHER   CLOVERS  409 

484.  Seed-production.  —  Commercial     seed    of     alsike 
clover  is  now  produced  mainly  in  Ontario,   Wisconsin, 
Michigan,  Ohio  and  Minnesota.     It  is  also  produced  in 
most  of  the  countries  of  northern  Europe,   but  mainly 
for  home  consumption.     Alsike  usually  yields  less  seed  to 
the  acre  than  either  red  clover  or  white  clover. 

The  seed  yields  are  best  on  land  that  is  moderately 
dry.  The  plants  are  mowed  when  the  heads  are  brown 
and  the  seed  in  the  dough  stage,  as  later  cutting  involves 
loss  by  shattering.  If  not  cut  till  ripe,  it  should  be  mowed 
when  moist  with  dew.  Great  care  is  necessary  in  curing. 
Usually  the  first  crop  is  harvested  as  seed,  as  in  most  of 
the  regions  where  seed  is  grown  the  second  crop  does  not 
have  time  to  ripen. 

European  seed  yields  are  given  by  various  authorities 
as  ranging  from  100  to  600  pounds  to  an  acre,  with  about 
300  pounds  as  the  average. 

In  9  cooperative  trials  in 
northern  Wisconsin,  the 
maximum  yield  was  6J 
bushels  to  an  acre,  and  the 
average  3J  bushels. 

485.  Seed.  — Alsike  clo- 
ver seed  (Fig.  45)  may  be 
distinguished     from     most 
other  clovers  by  its  small, 

FIG.    45.  —  Alsike    clover     seeds. 
Somewhat      heart-shaped    a,  seeds  showing  variation  in   form 

Seeds,       and       from       white    *nd   surffe   appearance,    enlarged; 

b,  natural  size  of  seeds. 

clover  by  its  green   color. 

Old  seeds  turn  brown.  Old  seeds  and  screenings  are 
sometimes  used  as  adulterants.  Trefoil  may  be,  and 
timothy  is  commonly,  present  as  an  impurity. 

Good  seed  often  attains  a  purity  of  99  per  cent  and  a 


410        FOE  AGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR    CULTURE 

viability  as  high.  It  will  germinate  in  2  to  6  days,  except- 
ing the  hard  seed,  which  is  not  as  abundant  as  in  red 
clover.  Any  of  the  ordinary  noxious  weed  seeds  may 
occur  in  alsike  as  impurities,  but  the  most  dangerous  is 
dodder.  The  seed  retains  its  viability  well  for  two  years, 
but  then  rapidly  deteriorates. 

A  bushel  of  seed  weighs  60  to  66  pounds.  One  pound 
contains  700,000  to  718,000  seeds. 

486.  Value  for  pasturage.  —  Alsike  clover  is  often  used, 
in  pasture  mixtures  for  low,  wet  lands  and  the  aftermath 
of  hay  fields  is  also  utilized  by  pasturing.     It  is  eagerly 
eaten  by  all  farm  animals,  but  with  cattle  and  sheep  the 
same  precautions  must  be  exercised  to  avoid  bloating  as 
with  red  clover  and  alfalfa.     In  closely  grazed  pastures, 
the  stems  are  commonly  spreading  or  nearly  prostrate. 

Werner  states  that  if  fed  green  to  horses,  it  is  very 
laxative  and  results  in  much  of  the  accompanying  grain 
feed  being  voided  undigested. 

HUNGARIAN  CLOVER  (Trifolium  pannonicum) 

487.  Hungarian  clover  is  native  from  northern  Italy 
to  the  Caucasus  region  of  Asia  Minor.     It  is  a  deep- 
rooted,  long-lived  perennial  having  much  the  same  general 
habits  as  red  clover,  but  the  whole  herbage  is  more  hairy, 
and  the  white  or  yellowish  flowers  are  in  large  ovate  heads. 

.Hungarian  clover  has  been  tested  at  many  of  the  Ameri- 
can experiment  stations,  and  in  most  cases  has  grown  quite 
as  well  as  red  clover.  It  is  not  much  cultivated  in  Europe, 
largely  on  account  of  the  high  cost  of  the  seed,  and  for  the 
same  reason  it  has  been  tried  only  in  an  experimental 
way  in  America.  The  seed  can  rarely  be  purchased  for 
less  than  $1  to  $1.25  a  pound. 


OTHER   CLOVERS  411 

WHITE  CLOVER  ( Trifolium  repens) 

488.  Botany.  —  White  clover  is  also  known  as  Dutch 
clover  and  rarely  as  white  trefoil.     It  is  native  throughout 
the  temperate  portion  of  Europe  and  Asia,  while  in  Africa 
it  occurs  in  the  Azores. 

Numerous  botanical  varieties  have  been  named,  but 
none  of  these  have  been  of  any  agricultural  importance. 
A  variety  with  purple  foliage  is  sometimes  cultivated 
as  an  ornamental.  The  only  really  distinct  agricultural 
variety  is  Ladino  clover.  Individual  plants  of  white 
clover  vary  greatly  so  that  it  would  be  possible  to  secure 
numerous  varieties  by  selection.  Work  of  this  kind  has 
been  undertaken  at  several  places. 

489.  Description.  —  White   clover  is   a  long-lived  but 
shallow-rooted  perennial.      It  differs  markedly  from  red 
and  alsike  clover  in  that  the  solid  stems  creep  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground  and  root  abundantly.     On  this  account 
the  growing  point  is  seldom  injured  by  mowing  and  graz- 
ing, and  so  the  growth  is  not  interrupted.     When  mowed, 
the  hay  consists  entirely  of  leaves  and  flower  stalks.     The 
leaflets  hold  on  much  better  in  curing  than  do  those  of  red 
clover.     Single  plants  make  a  dense  turf  often  a  foot  or 
more  in  diameter. 

Hays  at  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station  found  the 
tap  root  after  one  month  to  be  4|  inches  long  and  with 
numerous  side  roots,  and  when  two  months  old  to  be  2 
feet  long.  At  this  time  roots  began  to  be  found  on  the 
creeping  branches.  The  tap  root  is  said  to  die  in  one  or 
two  years. 

Werner  calculated  the  surface  area  of  the  leaves  from 
18  square  centimeters,  and  found  it  to  be  172  square 
centimeters. 


412        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

490.  Agricultural    history.  —  White    clover    seems    to 
have  been  first  cultivated  in  Holland,  where  it  forms  an 
important  element  in  the  pasture  lands.     The  harvesting 
of  the  seed  for  sowing  began  about  1759  in  Holstein  and 
in  1764  in  England,  but  was  apparently  still  earlier  in 
Holland. 

Jared  Eliot  mentions  it  in  Massachusetts  in  1747, 
and  Kalm  in  his  American  travels  a  few  years  later  found 
it  common.  Strickland,  who  traveled  in  the  United 
States  in  1794,  writes  as  follows :  — 

"In  every  part  of  America,  from  New  Hampshire  to  Carolina, 
from  the  sea  to  the  mountains,  the  land,  whether  calcareous  or 
argillaceous,  whether  wet  or  dry,  whether  worn  out  or  retaining 
its  original  fertility,  from  the  summit  of  the  Alleghany  ridge  to 
the  sandy  plains  of  Virginia,  is  spontaneously  covered  with  white 
clover,  growing  frequently  with  a  luxuriance  and  perfection 
that  art  can  rarely  equal  in  Europe. 

"I  am  told  it  is  never  met  with  far  back  in  the  woods,  but 
immediately  on  their  being  cleared  away,  eitner  by  fire  or  other- 
wise, it  takes  possession  of  the  ground ;  whioH  should  prove  that 
it  was  natural  to  it ;  that  the  seed  lies  there,  but  cannot  vegetate 
till  the  ground  is  cleared ;  but  again  I  have  been  told,  that  by 
some  tribes  of  Indians  it  is  called  'white  man's  foot  grass,'  from 
an  idea  that  wherever  he  has  trodden,  it  grows;  which  should 
prove  at  least,  that  it  had  not  been  known  in  the  country  longer 
than  the  white  man." 

491.  Adaptations.  —  White  clover  is  adapted  to  moist 
soils  in  nearly  the  whole  temperate  zone.     In  America  its 
range  is  quite  as  wide  as  that  of  redtop,  occurring  north- 
ward to  the  limits  of  agriculture,  and  southward  nearly 
to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.     It  thrives  best  in  regions  of  cool, 
moist  climates.     In  the  South,  it  persists  through  the  hot 
weather  of  summer  and  becomes  an  important  element 
of  the  pastures  in  winter. 


OTHER    CLOVERS  413 

It  will  grow  in  any  sort  of  soil,  provided  moisture  is 
abundant,  but  it  thrives  best  in  loams  and  clay  loams 
rich  in  humus,  and  fairly  well  drained. 

Through  all  the  moisture  areas  in  America,  it  is  so  well 
adapted  that  it  holds  its  own  spontaneously,  and  in  old 
pastures  gradually  becomes  more  abundant  unless  the 
soil  is  poor  or  droughty.  From  the  fact  that  cattle  avoid 
the  flowers,  spontaneous  reseeding  is  continuous. 

White  clover  also  grows  well  in  shady  places  and  often 
makes  up  a  considerable  portion  of  the  ground  cover  in 
orchards. 

Phosphatic  fertilizers  have  a  marked  effect  on  white 
clover  and  where  these  are  applied,  the  growth  of  the  clover 
is  usually  greatly  stimulated.  Potash  fertilizers  also  have 
a  similar  but  less  marked  effect. 

492.  Importance  of  white  clover.  —  With  the  exception 
of  blue-grass,  and  possibly  Bermuda  and  redtop,  white 
clover  is  the  most  important  perennial  pasture  plant  in 
America.     It  is  nearly  always  an  element  in  blue-grass 
pastures,  but  in  the  best  blue-grass  areas  it  is  not  abun- 
dant/   Otherwise  it  is   always  an  important  element  of 
mixed  pastures,  and  in  the  cotton  region  is  more  impor- 
tant than  blue-grass. 

White  clover  is  said  not  to  be  nearly  as  liable  as  red 
clover  to  cause  bloating,  but  as  it  is  usually  mixed  with 
grasses,  this  is  rarely  apt  to  occur.  Under  some  condi- 
tions it  causes  horses  to  "  slobber." 

Apart  from  its  use  as  pasture,  white  clover  is  very  much 
used  as  an  element  in  lawn  mixtures. 

493.  Seeding.  —  White  clover  is  rarely  sown  except  in 
mixtures  with  other  grasses,  and  after  it  is  once  established 
usually  maintains  itself  indefinitely.     The  usual  rate  of 
pure  seeding  recommended  is  9  to  13  pounds  to  an  acre. 


414        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 


494.  Yields.  —  White  clover  is  so  seldom  grown  pure 
as  a  hay  crop  that  there  are  but  scant  data  concerning  its 
hay-yielding  capacity. 

Friiwirth  compared  several  strains  both  of  ordinary 
and  Ladino  white  clover  in  Austria  in  1904  and  1905, 
with  the  following  results,  the  weights  being  of  the  green 
clover :  — 


STRAIN 

YIELD  TO  A 
HECTARE  —  1904 

YIELD  TO  A 
HECTARE  —  1905 

TOTAL 
YIELD 

Colossal  Ladino  (Hohen- 
heim  Seed)    .... 

Colossal  Ladino  (Hohen- 
heim  Seed)    .... 

Colossal     Ladino     from 
Italy              .... 

Kilograms 

39,239 
4  cuttings 

43,476 
4  cuttings 

34,447 

Kilograms 

23,726 
3  cuttings 

27,442 
3  cuttings 

29214 

Kgm. 

62,965 
70,918 
63  958 

Carter's  Common  White 
Clover      

4  cuttings 
23,098 

3  cuttings 
15,917 

30,015 

Carter's     Giant     White 
Clover      

3  cuttings 
23,469 

1  cutting 
15,158 

38,627 

3  cuttings 

1  cutting 

Stebler  and  Volkart  report  an  experiment  in  Switzer- 
land in  which  white  clover  from  various  sources  was  grown 
in  small  plots.  The  Ladino  clover  plots  were  much  in- 
jured by  winter-killing.  The  others  yielded  hay  at  the 
following  rates  to  a  hectare  in  kilograms  :  English  I,  5500  ; 
America,  5000;  Bohemian  I,  4750;  Russian  I,  4500; 
Bohemian  II,  4250;  Polish,  4000;  Galician,  4000; 
Russian  II,  3700 ;  New  Zealand,  3500 ;  English  II,  2500. 

At  the   Danish  Experiment   Station  various  regional 


OTHER   CLOVERS  415 

strains  were  grown  two  years  and  gave  comparative  yields 
as  follows:  Danish,  100;  Ladino,  94;  Holland,  92; 
American,  89;  Pomeranian,  86;  English,  80;  Silesian, 
76;  German,  73. 

In  England  a  number  of  experiments  have  shown  that 
if  seed  gathered  from  wild  white  clover  plants  be  sown, 
the  plants  will  persist  much  longer  than  if  seed  of  the  cul- 
tivated plants  be  sown.  The  cultivated  white  clover 
disappears  in  one  or  two  years,  while  the  wild  white 
clover  persists  much  longer  —  at  least  three  to  five  years. 
The  explanation  given  is  that  the  cultivated  white  clover 
is  less  resistant  to  the  rigorous  springs  and  perhaps  also 
to  "  clover  sickness." 

Werner  gives  the  hay  yields  to  an  acre  in  Germany  as 
ranging  from  1760  to  2640  pounds. 

The  only  American  hay  yield  reported  seems  to  be  the 
following:  Pennsylvania  Experiment  Station,  4133 
pounds  to  an  acre. 

495.  Pollination.  —  White  clover  has  long  been  valued 
as  a  honey  plant.     If  the  visits  of  insects  are  prevented, 
only  about  one-tenth  as  much  seed  is  produced,  according 
to  Darwin's  experiments  in  England. 

Beal  in  Michigan  secured  only  5  seeds  from  covered 
heads,  while  8  uncovered  heads  contained  236  seeds. 

In  an  experiment  by  Cook,  10  heads  covered  to  exclude 
insects  set  no  seeds,  while  10  heads  in  the  open  produced 
541  seeds. 

496.  Seed-production.  —  Commercial  seed  of  white  clo- 
ver is  grown  mainly  in  Europe  (Bohemia,  Poland,  Russia, 
Germany,  Holland,  England),  but  some  is  produced  in 
New  Zealand.     In  America  seed  is  produced  in  Ontario, 
Michigan,  Wisconsin  and  western   Washington.     Ladino 
white  clover  seed  comes  wholly  from  Italy. 


416        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

The  yield  of  seed  to  an  acre  in  Europe  seems  to  vary 
greatly.  Werner  gives  it  as  260  to  520  pounds ;  Schwerz, 
as  350  pounds ;  Sprengel,  as  70  to  880  pounds ;  Krafft, 
130  to  440  pounds. 

Werner  gives  the  average  yield  of  straw  as  about  1000 
pounds  to  an  acre. 

When  white  clover  is  tall  enough,  it  may  be  cut  with 
a  mower,  preferably  with  a  buncher  attachment.  If 
short,  a  light  iron  pan  or  a  canvas  is  attached  behind  the 
mower  and  the  cut  clover  removed  by  a  helper  with  a 
pitch  fork. 

497.  Seed.  —  White  clover  seed  is  very  similar  to  that 
of  alsike,  but  is  slightly  smaller  and  pale  yellow,  pinkish 
or  pale  brown  in  color.     It  is  seldom  adulterated  except 
with  old  seeds. 

The  purity  should  reach  98  per  cent  and  the  viability 
99  per  cent.  Good  seeds  germinate  in  2  to  6  days.  The 
seed  retains  its  viability  well  for  two  years  and  then 
gradually  deteriorates.  It  may  contain  any  of  the  ordi- 
nary weed  seeds  as  impurities. 

A  bushel  weighs  60  to  63  pounds.  One  pound  contains 
732,000  to  800,000  seeds. 

498.  Ladino    white    clover.  —  This    variety    grows    to 
about  twice  the  size  of  ordinary  white  clover.     In  recent 
years  various    seedsmen    have    advertised    it    as    Giant, 
Mammoth  or  Colossal  White  Clover.     Botanically  this 
variety  has  been  called  TrifoUum  repens  latum  by  Mc- 
Carthy. 

Ladino  clover  is  abundantly  cultivated  on  irrigated 
lands  in  Lombardy  and  derives  its  name  from  Lodi,  where 
it  was  probably  first  developed.  In  the  subalpine  Italian 
valleys  it  is  cut  four  to  five  times,  and  under  these  condi- 
tions outyields  alfalfa.  It  is  grown  only  on  heavy  lands 


OTHER   CLOVERS 


417 


and   is   irrigated   about   every   twelve   days.     According 

to  Friiwirth  the  annual  yield  of  hay  in  Italy  is  7000  to 

10,500  pounds  to  an  acre.     It  is 

usually  sown  with  wheat,  and  the 

fields  are  maintained  from  2  to  7 

years. 

This  variety  is  considerably 
less  cold-resistant  than  ordinary 
white  clover,  and  was  badly  in- 
jured by  winter  cold  in  Swiss 
trials  when  ordinary  white  clover 
was  uninjured. 

SWEET  CLOVER  (Melilotus  alba) 

499.  Botany  and  description. 
—  Sweet  clover  (Fig.  46)  is  also 
known  by  many  other  names, 
among  them  Bokhara  clover, 
melilot,  white  melilot,  sweet 
melilot,  Siberian  melilot,  bee 
clover,  honey  clover  and  galy- 
gumber.  In  the  South  it  is  now 
commonly  called  melilotus.  It  is 
native  to  temperate  Europe  and 
Asia  as  far  east  as  Tibet,  but  is 
now  spread  over  much  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada,  and 
also  in  the  south  temperate  zone 

of  both  hemispheres.      Several  varieties  have  been  de- 
scribed by  botanists. 

Sweet   clover  is  biennial  in  duration.     The  seedlings 
appear  in  early  spring  under  natural  conditions  and  grow 
2E 


FIG.  46.  —  Sweet  clover. 


418        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

rather  slowly  the  first  season,  but  by  fall  have  reached  a 
height  of  3  to  4  feet,  and  a  few  of  the  plants  will  bloom,  at 
least  in  the  South.  By  this  time  the  root  is  large  and  fleshy 
and  may  extend  to  a  depth  of  6  feet.  The  second  season's 
growth  begins  quite  early,  two  weeks  before  that  of  alfalfa, 
which  at  first  it  closely  resembles.  The  stems  reach  a 
height  of  6  to  12  feet,  and  bear  numerous  white,  sweet- 
scented  flowers  in  narrow,  erect  racemes.  The  mature  pods 
are  reticulated  and  each  bears  a  single  seed.  About  the 
time  the  pods  are  well  formed,  the  leaves  begin  to  drop  off. 

Every  part  of  the  plant  contains  a  bitter-tasting  sub- 
stance called  cumarin,  but  which  has  a  sweet,  vanilla-like 
odor.  The  young  shoots  contain  but  little  cumarin,  and 
so  are  quite  readily  eaten  by  sheep  and  cattle,  but  the  older 
stems  and  leaves  are  decidedly  better.  About  the  time 
sweet  clover  comes  into  bloom  the  stems  rapidly  become 
woody.  After  fruiting  the  plants  die. 

Individual  plants  vary  in  their  content  of  cumarin 
as  well  as  in  other  characteristics,  and  some  attempts 
have  been  made  to  improve  the  plant  by  selection,  and 
particularly  to  secure  a  non-bitter  variety. 

500.  Adaptations.  —  So  far  as  climate  is  concerned, 
sweet  clover  is  adapted  to  southern  Canada  and  practi- 
cally the  whole  of  the  United  States,  thriving  equally  well 
in  semi-arid  and  in  humid  regions. 

Its  soil  relations  are  likewise  very  wide,  as  sweet  clover 
will  grow  in  practically  all  types  from  cemented  clays  and 
gravels  to  poor  sand.  It  thrives  best,  however,  on  soils 
containing  an  abundance  of  lime.  Sweet  clover,  on 
account  of  its  deep  root  system,  is  able  to  withstand 
drought  nearly  as  well  as  alfalfa.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
can  endure  wet  or  poorly  drained  soils  better  than  either 
red  clover  or  alfalfa. 


OTHER   CLOVERS  419 

On  account  of  its  wide  adaptations  to  both  soils  and 
climate,  sweet  clover  is  valuable  to  use  in  places  where 
neither  red  clover  nor  alfalfa  gives  satisfactory  results. 

501.  Agricultural  history.  —  Sweet  clover  was  probably 
first  cultivated  in  western  Asia  in  the  same  general  region 
where  alfalfa  and  red  clover  were  first  used  in  agriculture, 
but  neither  in  Asia  nor  Europe  has  the  culture  of  the  plant 
ever  been  of  much  importance.     It  was  introduced  into 
North  America  at  least  as  early  as  1739,  when  it  was 
found  by  Clayton  in  Virginia.     It  was  recorded  from  New 
England  in   1785.     For  20  years  or  more  it  has  been 
utilized -on  the  black  calcareous  soils  of  Mississippi  and 
Alabama,  where  it  grows  luxuriantly.      In  more  recent 
times  it  has  been  grown  in  many  other  states. 

It  is  a  very  aggressive  plant,  spreading  along  roads 
and  railways  and  in  irrigated  sections  along  the  ditches. 
Its  spread  has  also  been  greatly  increased  by  the  habit  of 
bee  keepers  of  scattering  seed  in  waste  places  so  as  to 
provide  pasturage  for  bees. 

On  account  of  its  tendency  to  spread,  sweet  clover 
has  at  times  been  feared  as  a  weed,  but  it  rarely  causes 
any  trouble  in  cultivated  land. 

502.  Seeding.  —  Seeding  may  be  done  either  by  broad- 
casting or  with  a  drill.     Much  of  the  seed  is  "  hard  "  and 
does  not  germinate  the  first  season.     According  to  its 
viability,  from  20  to  30  pounds  of  hulled  seed  should  be 
used  to  an  acre  if  broadcasted,  or  somewhat  more  if  the 
seed  is  unhulled.     Werner  says  the  usual  rate  in  Germany 
is  26  pounds,  if  broadcasted,  and  half  this  amount  when 
drilled. 

503.  Securing  a  stand.  —  On  account  of  the  way  sweet 
clover  spreads  as  a  weed  in  waste  ground,  it  has  commonly 
been  supposed  that  it  would  be  exceedingly  easy  to  obtain 


420        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 

a  stand  on  cultivated  land.  Numerous  failures,  however, 
show  that  this  is  not  the  case.  Westgate's  investigations 
have  led  to  the  conclusion  that  the  main  requirement  is 
a  thoroughly  firmed  seed  bed.  Another  factor  of  impor- 
tance is  inoculation,  as  sweet  clover  seems  just  as  likely 
as  alfalfa  to  fail  where  the  proper  nodule  organisms  are 
absent. 

Under  natural  conditions  the  pods  of  sweet  clover  fall 
on  the  ground  in  late  summer  and  germinate  in  early 
spring,  most  of  them  remaining  on  the  surface  or  being 
very  shallowly  embedded  in  the  soil.  On  cultivated  land 
good  stands  may  be  secured  either  by  sowing  in  early  fall 
or  in  spring. 

Fall  seeding  has  the  disadvantage  that  the  root  growth 
made  the  first  season  is  not  very  large  and  consequently 
the  plants  the  second  season  are  not  so  vigorous.  Further- 
more, the  crop  lasts  but  one  growing  season  and  not  two, 
as  is  the  case  in  spring  planting.  Fall  planting  in  rye  is 
the  common  method  in  Germany  according  to  Werner, 
but  in  this  case  the  crop  is  used  mainly  as  green  manure 
and  plowed  under  after  one  season.  This  method  has  also 
been  used  occasionally  with  success  in  America,  but  sweet 
clover  is  nearly  as  apt  to  winter-kill  if  thus  sown  as  is  red 
clover.  At  Arlington  Farm,  Virginia,  sweet  clover  was 
sown  at  various  dates  but  the  best  results  were  secured 
when  sown  in  May  and  in  October. 

On  the  whole,  spring  seeding  is  to  be  preferred  and  this 
has  generally  proved  satisfactory. 

Lloyd  thinks  the  best  method  for  Ohio  and  Kentucky  is 
to  sow  from  January  to  March  either  on  wheat  or  on  bare 
ground,  the  former  being  the  common  practice  in  Ken- 
tucky. In  gullies  the  best  method  is  to  scatter  sweet 
clover  straw  or  ripe  plants  with  the  pods  still  attached. 


OTHER    CLOVERS  421 

504.  Relative  proportions  of  tops  and  roots  of  sweet 
clover.  —  Hopkins    at    the    Illinois    Experiment    Station 
determined  the  total  yield  of  tops  and  roots  to  a  depth  of 
20  inches,  when  the  plants  were  nearly  mature,  to  be 
respectively  10,367  and  2410  pounds  dry  matter  to  an 
acre.     1809  pounds  of  the  roots  were  in  the  first  seven 
inches  of  soil  and  601  pounds  between  7   and  20  inches 
in  depth.      The  tops  contained  197  pounds  of  nitrogen 
and  the  roots  31  pounds. 

505.  Utilization.  —  Sweet  clover  may  be  utilized  either 
as  pasturage,  hay  or  green  manure,   and  has  been  used 
both  for  soiling  and  for  silage. 

While  the  herbage  is  bitter,  it  is  much  less  so  in  early 
spring  and  most  animals  can  be  taught  at  this  time  to 
eat  the  plant.  It  may  be  thus  used  for  all  classes  of  farm 
animals,  but  is  probably  best  for  hogs  and  cattle.  An 
acre  of  sweet  clover  will  furnish  pasturage  through  the 
season  for  about  20  young  hogs,  which  apparently  thrive 
quite  as  well  as  those  on  alfalfa  or  red  clover.  At  the 
Iowa  Experiment  Station  pigs  made  an  average  daily 
gain  of  1.02  pounds  on  sweet  clover  as  against  1.13  pounds 
on  red  clover  pasturage.  In  pasturing  cattle  care  must 
be  taken  to  avoid  bloating. 

The  use  of  sweet  clover  as  a  soiling  crop  is  uncommon, 
but  hogs  eat  it  readily  when  thus  fed.  At  the  Ontario 
Experiment  Station  a  yield  of  over  30  tons  green  matter 
to  the  acre  was  obtained. 

Sweet  clover  is  mostly  used  as  hay  and  should  be  cut 
just  as  the  first  blossoms  appear,  or  a  little  before,  as  the 
stems  thereafter  rapidly  become  woody.  In  curing,  much 
of  the  cumarin  volatilizes  so  that  the  hay  loses  much  of 
its  bitter  taste. 

If  spring  sown  it  is  usually  best  to  utilize  sweet  clover 


422        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 

by  pasturing  the  first  season,  or  a  crop  of  hay  may  be  cut. 
The  second  season  it  is  best  cut  for  hay  or  for  seed,  or  both. 
Too  close  cutting  with  the  mower  is  harmful,  as  new  shoots 
appear  only  from  the  stems  and  not  from  the  crown  as  in 
alfalfa. 

Sweet  clover  is  slightly  more  succulent  than  alfalfa  and 
therefore  a  little  more  difficult  to  cure  without  undue  loss 
of  leaves.  To  avoid  this  the  hay  should  be  handled  as 
little  as  possible,  curing  as  much  as  possible  in  the  windrows 
and  then  in  small  shocks. 

Lloyd  states  that  it  has  been  utilized  as  silage  by  Ohio 
farmers,  and  thus  fed  to  sheep  and  cattle  with  good  results. 

506.  Advantages  and  disadvantages.  —  The  chief  disad- 
vantages of  sweet  clover  are  :  — 

1.  The  cumarin  content  of  the  herbage,  which  makes 
animals  avoid  it  until  they  have  acquired  a  taste  for  its 
bitterness.  On  the  other  hand,  this  is  said  by  some  to 
be  an  advantage,  as  animals  when  first  put  in  a  pasture 
will  not  eat  enough  to  cause  bloating.  2.  The  rapidity 
with  which  'the  stems  become  woody,  and  the  difficulty  of 
curing. 

On  the  other  hand,  sweet  clover  will  thrive  on  soils 
where  neither  red  clover  nor  alfalfa  will  succeed,  and  there 
can  be  little  doubt  that  it  will  become  much  more  utilized, 
especially  for  pasturage  on  poor  sandy  soils. 

507.  Yield.  —  Comparatively  few  data  on  the  yields 
of  sweet  clover  have  been  reported.     In  the  North  two 
cuttings  may  be  secured  the  second  year,  both  of  hay  or 
one  of  seed,  while  in  the  South  three  hay  cuttings  or  two 
of  hay  and  one  of  seed  may  be  harvested.     Tracy  says  that 
the  three  cuttings  in  the  South  will  each  average  1  to  2 
tons   an   acre.      At   the   Alabama    (Canebrake)    Substa- 
tion the  first  season's  spring-sown  crop  was  at  the  rate  of 


OTHER   CLOVERS  423 

5056  pounds  of  hay  to  an  acre,  and  in  the  second  season 
three  cuttings  gave  6320  pounds  to  an  acre.  On  another 
plot  the  results  were  respectively  6672  and  7048  pounds 
to  an  acre. 

At  the  Massachusetts  Experiment  Station,  a  plot 
seeded  May  8  yielded  September  9  at  the  rate  of  2700 
pounds  of  hay  an  acre.  The  next  season  it  was  cut  on 
June  24  and  September  22,  yielding  respectively  2727  and 
1000  pounds  an  acre. 

At  the  Utah  Experiment  Station  a  yield  of  7700  pounds 
of  hay  an  acre  was  obtained.  At  the  Wyoming  Experiment 
Station  yields  of  8960  pounds  and  7500  pounds  of  hay  to 
an  acre  were  secured.  At  the  Ontario  Experimental  Farm 
a  yield  of  61,300  pounds  green  matter  an  acre  is  recorded. 

508.  Seed-production.  —  Seed  of  sweet  clover  is  pro- 
duced both  in  Europe  and  in  the  United  States.  Euro- 
pean commercial  seed  is  always  hulled.  American  seed 
is  always  in  the  hull  and  is  produced  in  the  South  and  in 
Kansas.  On  account  of  the  limited  demand  until  now  the 
methods  of  seed-production  have  not  been  especially 
developed.  The  best  yields  of  seed  come  from  thin 
stands  that  have  not  been  cut  for  hay,  but  satisfactory 
yields  may  be  obtained  from  fields  that  have  previously 
produced  one  cutting,  or  in  the  South  two  cuttings  of 
hay.  To  avoid  shattering  the  hard  stems  should  be  cut 
when  damp,  and  cured  in  small  shocks ;  or  it  may  be  cut 
with  a  binder.  The  time  to  cut  is  when  about  thr*ee- 
fourths  of  the  pods  have  turned  dark.  In  western  Kan- 
sas it  is  sometimes  harvested  with  a  header  and  cured 
in  medium-sized  shocks.  In  the  South  the  seed  pods 
are  usually  removed  by  nailing,  but  in  the  West  grain 
thrashers  are  now  used.  The  yields  in  Kansas  ar.e  said 
to  be  from  2  to  8  bushels  to  an  acre. 


424        FOE  AGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 


FIG.  47.  —  Seeds  of  sweet  clover,  a, 
seeds  showing  variation  in  form  and  size  ; 
b,  natural  size  of  seeds  ;  c,  a  pod  of  sweet 
clover. 


509.  Seed.  —  The  seeds  of  sweet  clover  (Fig.  47)  are 
yellowish  brown,  much  like  those  of  alfalfa,  but  the  sur- 
face  is   duller   and   slightly   uneven.      By  crushing,  the 
vanilla-like  odor  of  cumarin  is  evident,  at  once  distin- 
guishing   it    from    all 
similar     seeds     except 
other  species  of  Melilo- 
tus.     Commercial  seed 
usually  has  a  high  de- 
gree    of     purity     and 
should       approximate 
100    per    cent,       The 
germination,   however, 
is  very  variable  on  ac- 
count of  "  hard  "  seed. 
In   22   southern-grown 
samples,    the    average 

proportion  of  hard  -seed  was  60  per  cent,  and  in  an  equal 
number  of  northern-grown  samples,  43  per  cent.  Im- 
ported seed  showed  but  12  per  cent  hard  seeds  in  28 
samples.  The  probable  explanation  of  the  better  quality 
of  the  European  seed  is  that  most  of  it  was  one  year  old 
or  more.  The  seed  is  reported  to  have  remained  alive  in 
some  cases  for  77  years.  According  to  Werner,  one  pound 
contains  235,000  seeds. 

510.  Related  species.  —  Various  other  species  of  M eli- 
lotus  have  been  more  or  less  utilized  agriculturally,  includ- 
ing  M.  officinalis,  M.  indica,  M.  altissima,  M.  gracilis, 
M.  speciosa  and  M.  ccerulea.     The  first  two  are  abundantly 
and  the  third  sparingly  introduced  into  America.     The 
last  is  really  a  species  belonging  to  Trigonella. 

Melilotus  officinalis,  official  melilot,  is  a  biennial  yellow- 
flowered  species.     It  is   about   two   weeks   earlier   than 


OTHEE    CLOVERS  425 

Bokhara  clover,  much  less  leafy  and  smaller  in  size,  grow- 
ing but  3  to  7  feet  tall.  It  has  spread  over  much  the  same 
territory  as  Bokhara  clover.  In  New  Jersey,  it  is  becom- 
ing the  dominant  species.  Some  commercial  seed  is  grown 
in  Kentucky.  It  is  from  this  species  that  cumarin  was 
secured  for  medicinal  use  in  olden  times. 

Melilotus  indica  (Melilotus  parviflbra),  the  "  sour 
clover  "  of  California  and  Arizona,  is  an  annual  species 
with  small  yellow  flowers.  It  is  called  King  Island  melilot 
from  the  fact  that  it  was  introduced  on  King  Island  near 
Tasmania  about  1906  and  rapidly  spread  over  the  sandy 
lands  of  this  island,  resulting  in  the  establishment  of  a 
great  dairy  industry. 

In  the  United  States,  it  is  most  common  in  the  South, 
being  abundant  about  Charleston,  New  Orleans  and  in 
southern  California.  In  the  citrus  regions  of  California,, 
it  has  been  used  in  recent  years  as  an  orchard  green 
manure  crop,  and  commercial  seed  is  now  produced  in  that 
state. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
CRIMSON    CLOVER    AND   OTHER    ANNUALS 

THE  annual  clovers  and  clover-like  plants  are  much  less 
important  agriculturally  than  the  perennials.  They  are 
variously  used  as  hay,  pasture  and  green  manure  crops. 
Their  greatest  use  is  as  winter  cover  crops. 

CRIMSON  CLOVER  (Trifolium  incarnatum) 

511.  Botany.  —  Crimson    clo- 
ver (Fig.  48)  is  also  known  from 
the  color  of  its  flowers  as  scarlet, 
carnation  and  incarnate  clover; 
also  from  its  reputed  origin  as 
German,    Italian    and    French 
clover. 

The  plant  is  native  to  south- 
ern Europe,  occurring  as  far 
north  as  England.  The  wild 
plant  (variety  Molinerii)  has 
yellow-white  flowers,  except  one 
form  in  which  they  are  rose- 
colored.  The  cultivated  plant 
is  taller,  more  vigorous  and  less 
hairy  than  the  wild. 

512.  Agricultural    history.  - 
Crimson    clover   was    probably 
first     cultivated     in     southern 
France    and    adjacent    Switzer- 

426 


FIG.  48.  —  Crimson  clover. 


CRIMSON   CLOVER  AND   OTHER  ANNUALS     427 

land.  It  was  cultivated  in  Germany  as  early  as  1796. 
At  the  present  time  it  is  grown  in  France,  Switzer- 
land, northern  Italy,  Austria,  the  wine  districts  of  Ger- 
many and  in  southern  England.  The  earliest  established 
record  of  its  culture  in  the  United  States  is  1818,  when 
it  was  introduced  by  Bedingfield  Hands  of  Chestertown, 
Pennsylvania,  and  distributed  among  his  friends.  It  was 
widely  distributed  by  the  United  States  Patent  Office 
in  1855,  but  its  culture  did  not  assume  much  importance 
till  about  1880. 

513.  Description.  —  Crimson  clover  is  an  annual  plant, 
reaching  under  favorable  conditions  a  height  of  three  feet. 
The  root  system  penetrates  at  least  as  deep,  as  plants 
sown  at  the  North  Dakota  Experiment  Station  in  spring 
were  found  to  have  roots  three  feet  deep  by  August  22. 
At  the  Delaware  Experiment  Station  the  tops  and  roots 
on  an  acre  were  determined  to  contain  respectively  5372 
and  413  pounds  of  dry  matter.     The  stems  are  spreading 
or  ascending  where  the  plants   are  isolated,   but  more 
nearly  erect  where  they  are  crowded.     When  sown  in  fall, 
the  young  plants  are  apt  to  be  single  stemmed.     Well- 
grown  plants  from  fall-sown  seed  may  have  as  many  as 
20  stems  and  50  or  more  flower  spikes.     The  flower  clus- 
ters are  dense  cylindric  or  slightly  tapering  spikes,   If 
to  2  inches  long,  the  flowers  usually  brilliant  crimson,  but 
rarely  white,  yellowish,  rose  or  variegated. 

514.  Adaptations.  —  Crimson     clover    is    normally    a 
winter   annual   and   is,  therefore,  primarily  adapted   to 
regions  where  the  average  minimum  temperature  is  not 
fatal.     In  Germany  Werner  thinks  this  temperature  is 
about  4°  below  zero  Fahrenheit.     By  selective  elimina- 
tion, however,  hardier  strains  can  undoubtedly  be  secured, 
as  J.  H.  Hale  grew  for  a  period  of  years  in  Connecticut 


428        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    TP1EIR   CULTURE 

a  strain  that  he  had  thus  selected.  Ordinary  crimson 
clover,  however,  usually  winter-kills  in  the  states  north 
of  New  Jersey  and  west  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains. 

Crimson  clover  has  been  successfully  grown  in  Georgia, 
Alabama,  Mississippi  and  Tennessee,  but  the  prevailing 
dry  autumns. in  these, states  make  it  difficult  to  secure  a 
catch.  In  the  moister  region  near  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  it 
succeeds  well,  but  is  little  used. 

In  Oregon,  Washington  and  British  Columbia  west  of 
the  Cascade  Mountains,  the  conditions  are  also  very  favor- 
able to  crimson  clover,  but  it  has  never  been  much  used. 

For  fall  sowing  the  important  requisites  are  a  mild  winter 
climate  and  comparatively  frequent  rainfalls  in  late  sum- 
mer and  early  fall  so  that  the  plants  can  get  well  started. 

As  a  spring-sown  crop,  crimson  clover  has  succeeded 
in  Michigan  and  North  Dakota,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  it 
can  compete  with  red  and  alsike  clover  used  in  this  manner. 

Crimson  clover  shows  no  very  marked  soil  preferences, 
succeeding  both  on  sandy  and  clayey  soils,  whether  cal- 
careous or  not,  so  long  as  they  are  well  drained.  It  does 
not  succeed  well  on  poor  sandy  soils  and  demands  a  good 
humus  content  for  its  best  development.  On  muck  soils 
it  is  said  not  to  succeed  well. 

Crimson  clover  is  well  adapted  to  withstand  shade, 
and  so  is  often  sown  in  orchards  and  with  other  crops. 

Crimson  clover  apparently  never  has  been  troubled  in 
America  by  "  clover  sickness,"  it  having  been  sown  on 
some  farms  continuously  for  at  least  ten  years.  Werner 
writes  that  in  Germany  it  should  not  be  again  sown  on  the 
same  ground  until  four  to  six  years  have  elapsed. 

515.  Importance.  —  Crimson  clover  is  grown  in  the 
United  States  mainly  in  New  Jersey,  Delaware,  Maryland 
and  Virginia,  but  its  culture  is  increasing  in  the  Carolinas. 


CRIMSON  CLOVER  AND   OTHER  ANNUALS      429 

In  these  states  it  is  well  adapted  both  to  the  sandy  soils 
of  the  coastal  area  and  the  clayey  soils  of  the  Piedmont. 
Elsewhere  in  the  United  States  it  is  but  little  grown. 
In  the  states  above  mentioned,  the  total  area  planted  in 
1909  was  about  50,000  acres,  basing  this  on  the  assump- 
tion that  crimson  clover  was  f  of  the  "  clover  "  acreage 
in  Delaware ;  f  in  New  Jersey,  J  in  Maryland,  J  in  Vir- 
ginia and  ^  in  North  Carolina. 

516.  Variability  and  agricultural  varieties.  —  Crimson 
clover  is  conspicuously  variable  in  two  respects ;  namely, 
the  color  of  the  corolla  and  the  life  period.     In  a  single 
field  of  crimson  clover,  plants  may  be  found  with  white, 
rose,  crimson  and  variegated  crimson  and  white  flowers. 
As  crimson  clover  is  mainly  self-pollinated,  such  varieties 
are  easily  selected  and  established. 

At  the  present  time  European  seedsmen  offer  five 
varieties ;  namely,  extra  early,  ordinary,  late  and  extra 
late  crimson-flowered  and  late  white-flowered. 

517.  Seeding.  —  The  rate  of  seeding  varies  from   12 
to  20  pounds  to  an  acre,  15  pounds  being  the  usual  rate. 
One  pound  contains  about  120,000  seeds,  so  that  at  the 
ordinary  rate  45  seeds  to  the  square  foot  are  sown.     In 
Europe  the  rate  of  seeding  seems  to  be  much  higher,  as 
Werner  recommends  22  to  40  pounds  if  broadcasted,  and 
18  to  26  pounds  if  drilled. 

Crimson  clover  is  sown  either  by  broadcasting  or  by 
drilling.  Shallow  seeding  seems  to  be  most  satisfactory, 
but  no  critical  experiments  have  been  recorded.  One 
inch  depth  in  sandy  soil  and  one-half  inch  in  clay  soils  is 
probably  a  good  general  rule. 

Home-grown  seed  in  the  hull  is  often  sown  by  farmers, 
and  the  belief  prevails  that  such  seed  is  more  likely  to  give 
a  good  stand  than  the  hulled  seed. 


430         FORAGE  PLANTS   AND    THEIR    CULTURE 

518.  Time  of  sowing.  —  In  the  latitude  of  Maryland, 
crimson  clover  may  be  sown  any  time  from  midsummer 
until  October.     Midsummer  sowings  are  apt  to  be  injured 
by  heat,  and  late  sowings  to  be  winter-killed.     So  far  as 
temperature  is  concerned,  the  best  time  is  probably  late 
summer,  which  will  permit  about  ten  weeks'  growth  before 
the  first  frost.     Ample  moisture  at  the  time  of  seeding 
and  while  the  plants  are  young  is  quite  as  important  as 
the  temperature  relations,  and  lack  of  timely  rains  results 
in  more  failures  to  secure  stands  than  any  other  one 
cause.     A  common  saying  among  farmers  is  that  "  crimson 
clover  should  be  sown  between  showers." 

In  the  Northern  States  and  Canada,  crimson  clover 
may  be  sown  in  spring.  Spring  sowing  is  used  to  some 
extent  in  Europe  and  may  be  practicable  for  some  pur- 
poses in  America.  A  nurse-crop  cannot  be  used  with 
spring  sowings,  however,  as  the  clover  grows  too  rapidly. 

519.  Methods  of  sowing.  —  Crimson  clover  is  sown  in 
many  different  ways,  whether  grown  primarily  for  hay, 
pasture  or  green  manure.      The  principal  methods  are 
sowing  alone  ;   sowing  in  an  intertilled  crop  ;    and  sowing 
mixed  with  a  small  grain  —  wheat,  rye,  barley  or  winter 
oats  for  hay. 

More  crimson  clover  is  probably  sown  in  cultivated 
rows  of  corn  than  in  any  other  way.  This  is  commonly 
done  by  broadcasting  at  the  time  of  the  last  cultivation 
of  corn  in  Maryland,  but  farther  south  later  sowing  is 
more  desirable  to  avoid  injury  to  the  crimson  clover  by 
hot  summer  weather.  The  clover  matures  early  enough 
the  next  season  so  that  the  hay  crop  can  be  removed  in 
time  .to  plant  corn  again ;  south  of  central  Delaware  the 
crimson  clover  may  be  harvested  for  seed  and  still  leave 
time  to  grow  a  crop  of  corn. 


CRIMSON   CLOVER  AND   OTHER   ANNUALS     431 

In  North  Carolina  successful  stands  of  crimson  clover 
have  been  secured  by  sowing  in  cotton  in  August,  but  it 
is  difficult  to  cover  the  seeds  without  injuring  the  opened 
cotton.  Among  other  intertilled  crops  in  which  crimson 
clover  may  be  sown  are  soybeans,  tobacco,  cantaloupes 
and  all  vegetables  except  root  crops,  as  the  digging  of  these 
necessarily  destroys  much  of  the  clover. 

Crimson  clover  is  most  often  sown  alone,  whether  in- 
tended for  use  as  green  manure,  hay  or  seed-production. 
In  recent  years  it  has  been  much  grown  in  mixtures  with 
wheat,  oats,  rye  or  barley.  Sometimes  only  a  small 
amount  of  the  grain  crop  is  added  so  as  to  prevent  the 
clover  from  lodging,  but  more  often  a  half  seeding  of  the 
grain  is  used,  and  the  resulting  hay  crop  is  much  larger 
than  that  of  clover  alone.  The  common  rate  of  seeding  in 
such  a  mixture  is  15  pounds  of  the  clover  seed  and  30 
pounds  of  the  grain  seed  to  the  acre. 

Crimson  clover  may  be  sown  with  buckwheat,  in 
midsummer  or  even  later,  provided  there  is  time  for  the 
buckwheat  to  mature  before  frost.  The  buckwheat  must 
be  seeded  lightly,  otherwise  the  clover  may  be  destroyed 
by  the  dense  shade.  In  place  of  buckwheat,  cowpeas 
may  be  used,  and  either  cut  for  hay  before  frost  or  allowed 
to  remain  on  the  ground. 

520.  Time  to  cut  for  hay.  —  Crimson  clover  should 
preferably  be  cut  for  hay  just  as  soon  as  the  lower  flowers 
on  the  most  advanced  heads  have  faded.  If  cutting  be 
delayed  beyond  this,  the  hairs  on  the  calyx  and  elsewhere 
become  hard  and  stiff,  so  that  if  the  hay  be  fed  to  horses, 
the  hairs  are  likely  to  form  compact  "  hair-balls  "  in  the 
intestines,  which  nearly  always  result  in  death.  The 
danger  is  generally  believed  to  be  much  lessened  by  feeding 
crimson  clover  mixed  with  other  roughage,  or  by  wetting 


432         FOE  AGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

the  clover  hay  about  12  hours  before  feeding  so  that  the 
hairs  become  soft.  Such  hair-balls  rarely,  if  ever,  form 
in  cattle  and  sheep,  so  that  late  cut  hay  may  be  safely 
utilized  as  feed  for  such  animals.  If  cut  before  bloom,  the 
yield  is  much  less  and  the  curing  more  difficult. 

521.  Yields.  —  The  yield  of  hay  from  crimson  clover 
where  the  stand  is  good  ranges  from  1500  to  6000  pounds 
an  acre,  probably  averaging  about  2500  pounds. 

Yields  reported  by  experiment  stations  are  as  follows 
in  pounds  to  an  acre  :  Pennsylvania,  2154  to  5121 ;  New 
Jersey,  2460  to  4600;  South  Carolina,  3600;  Florida, 
about  4000;  Alabama,  4057;  Arizona,  145  to  570; 
Oregon,  13,340;  Vermont,  spring-sown,  4550;  Michigan, 
spring-sown,  4400. 

Mixtures  usually  yield  more  heavily.  Thus,  at  the 
Alabama  Experiment  Station  the  following  results  were 
secured :  — 

Crimson  clover  seeded  alone       2836  Ib. 

Crimson  clover  seeded  in  mixture  :  — 

Barley  and  crimson  clover       .......  3695  Ib. 

Wheat  and  crimson  clover 3771  Ib. 

Oats  and  crimson  clover 4228  Ib. 

522.  Other   uses   of   crimson   clover,  —  Besides   being 
used  as  a  hay  crop,  crimson  clover  is  extensively  used  for 
pasturage,  to  a  slight  extent  for  soiling  and  very  much 
as  a  soil  improver  both  in  orchards  and  elsewhere. 

Crimson  clover  will  furnish  a  small  amount  of  pasturage 
in  fall,  especially  for  hogs  and  calves.  In  the  spring  it 
comes  on  earlier  than  other  clovers,  and  under  the  most 
favorable  conditions  may  be  grazed  for  a  period  of  eight 
weeks.  The  usual  precautions  must  be  taken  to  avoid 
bloating. 

Crimson  clover  may  also  be  utilized  as  soiling,  and  will 


CRIMSON   CLOVER   AND   OTHER   ANNUALS      433 

furnish  succulent  green  feed  for  a  period  of  2  to  5  weeks, 
especially  if  both  early  and  late  varieties  be  used. 

As  a  green  manure  or  cover  crop,  crimson  clover  is 
especially  valuable  because  of  the  early  date  at  which  it 
can  be  plowed  under,  thus  permitting  corn  and  other  crops 
to  be  planted  in  time. 

Only  two  other  legumes  can  be  used  in  the  same  way  and 
for  the  same  purpose  as  crimson  clover,  —  yellow  trefoil 
and  hairy  vetch.  Trefoil  does  not  produce  'nearly  so 
much  herbage;  while  hairy  vetch  does  not  mature  as 
early  in  spring,  and  the  cost  of  seeding  is  considerably 
higher. 

523.  Seed-production.  —  Crimson   clover   is   harvested 
for  seed  as  soon  as  perfectly  ripe.     As  the  seeds  shatter 
easily,  it  is  best  to  mow  early  in  the  morning  or  when 
slightly  moist,  using  either  a  mowing  machine  or  a  self- 
rake  reaper.     In  drying,  care  is  necessary  to  avoid  loss  by 
shattering,  and  to  this  end  it  is  usually  cured  in  small 
bunches.     If  the  clover  becomes  wet  from  rain,  the  seed 
will  sprout  promptly,  and  this  may  be  a  source  of  serious 
loss.     The  unhulled  seed  may  be  secured  by  thrashing  or 
by  flailing. 

To  harvest  seed  for  home  use,  there  has  long  been  used 
a  device  consisting  essentially  of  a  platform  or  box  on  the 
front  of  which  is  a  comb,  that  may  be  raised  or  lowered, 
the  whole  mounted  on  wheels.  This  device  is  used  when 
the  seeds  are  ripe  and  dry.  The  most  efficient  of  these 
combs  is  said  to  secure  about  90  per  cent  of  the  seed. 

The  yield  is  said  to  average  about  6  bushels  to  an  acre. 
In  Europe  the  yields  are  given  as  250  to  450  pounds  to  an 
acre. 

524.  Seed.  —  Seed  of  crimson  clover  (Fig.  49)  is  larger 
and  more  rounded  than  most  other  clovers.     Fresh  seed 

2F 


434         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 

is  shiny  and  somewhat  pinkish  in  color.  Old  seed  be- 
comes dull  and  brownish.  Rarely  it  may  be  adulterated 
with  red  clover  screenings,  and 
sometimes  there  is  considerable 
trefoil  present. 

Good,    fresh     commercial    seed 
sh011^  be  99  per   cent   pure  and 
have  a  viability  of  98-99  per  cent. 
FIG.  49.—  Seeds  of  crim-    It   loses   its   viability  rapidly,    so 


son  clover  (enlarged  and  that  see^  two  yearg  ol(J  ig  worth- 
natural  size). 

less.  There  is  never  much  hard 

seed,  and  all  the  good  seed  should  germinate  in  2  to  6 
days.  . 

Troublesome  weed  seeds  that  may  be  present  as  impuri- 
ties are  Canada  thistle,  wild  carrot,  yellow  dock,  buck- 
horn  and  oxeye-daisy. 

The  legal  weight  of  a  bushel  is  60  pounds,  but  it  may 
weigh  up  to  63  pounds.  One  pound  contains  118,000  to 
150,000  seeds. 

SHAFTAL  OR  SCHABDAR  (Trifolium  suaveolens) 

525.  Shaftal  or  Persian  clover  is  an  annual,  native  to 
central  Asia.  It  is  characterized  by  hollow  stems,  which 
lodge  easily  ;  smooth  herbage  ;  small  heads  of  pink,  very 
fragrant  flowers;  and  pods  inclosed  in  a  much  swollen 
calyx. 

This  clover  is  cultivated  under  irrigation  in  Persia  and 
northwest  India  for  forage.  In  Europe  it  has  been  cul- 
tivated many  years  as  an  ornamental.  Seeds  of  it  some- 
times occur  as  an  impurity  in  crimson  clover  seed  from 
France,  and  thus  occasional  plants  may  be  found  in  crim- 
son clover  fields.  Commercial  seed  in  small  quantities 
can  be  obtained  in  Persia. 


CRIMSON   CLOVER   AND   OTHER   ANNUALS      435 

While  shaft al  withstands  the  winter  in  Maryland  when 
fall  sown,  its  lodging  habit  makes  it  less  desirable  than 
crimson  clover.  It  has  given  excellent  results  under 
irrigation  in  Arizona  as  a  winter  crop. 

BERSEEM  (Trifolium  alexandrinum) 

526.  Berseem  is  an  annual  white-flowered  clover,  much 
cultivated  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile  in  lower  Egypt,  where 
about  1,500,000  acres  are  grown  as  a  winter  annual  under 
irrigation.     It  is  probably  native  to  this  region,  but  the 
species  is  not  known  in  a  wild  state.     There  are  three 
varieties  grown :  the  Fachl,  cut  but  once ;   the  Saidi,  cut 
twice ;   and  the  Muscowi,  cut  as  many  as  four  times. 

It  was  introduced  into  the  United  States  in  1900  and 
widely  tested.  As  it  is  destroyed  when  the  temperature 
falls  to  about  18°  F.,  it  can  be  grown  in  most  of  the  United 
States  only  as  a  summer  annual.  For  that  purpose  it 
cannot  compete  with  other  clovers  —  especially  red  and 
alsike  —  as  it  does  not  yield  as  well  and  must  be  planted 
each  season. 

In  the  extreme  southern  portions  of  the  United  States, 
from  California  to  Texas,  berseem  succeeds  well  enough 
under  irrigation,  but  cannot  compete  with  alfalfa.  As  a 
winter  crop  to  grow  in  short  rotations,  it  may  eventually 
be  utilized  in  this  region. 

The  seed  of  berseem  is  cheap,  but  is  likely  to  contain 
wild  mustard  seed  as  an  impurity. 

YELLOW  TREFOIL  (Medicago  lupulina) 

527.  Yellow  trefoil  is  also  known  as  black  medick  and 
nonesuch,  and  rarely  as  hop  clover,  the  last  term  being 
more  properly  applied  to  yellow-flowered  clovers.     Yel- 


436        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 


low  trefoil  has  become  rather  notorious  from  the  fact 
that  its  seed  (Fig.  50)  has  been  much  used  to  adulterate 
alfalfa  seed,  but  nevertheless  the  plant  has  some  merit  as 
a  forage  crop.  It  is  native  to  Europe  and  Asia,  but  has 

become  thoroughly  es- 
tablished from  Ontario 
to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
and  is  also  common  on 
the  Pacific  Coast.  Its 
wide  naturalization  in- 
dicates its  wide  adapta- 

FIG.  50.  —  Seeds  of  yellow  trefoil,    a,       °n< 
seeds  showing  variation  in  form  and  size ;         Of   its   wide   Value   in 
b,  natural  size  of  seeds ;  c,  oval  form  of    THvirODe 


trefoil  seeds  indicated  ;  d,  a  pod  of  trefoil. 


Stebler  and 
Schroter  write :  "  Al- 
though neither  very  productive  nor  persistent,  still  on 
many  soils  where  red  clover  is  not  successful  this  plant 
becomes  valuable  because  its  fodder  is  so  nutritive.  It  is 
especially  valuable  in  pastures.  Because  of  the  diffuse 
stems  and  their  spreading  habit,  yellow  trefoil  is  usually 
sown  in  mixtures  with  clovers  and  grasses,  and  thus  forms 
excellent  pasturage.  As  the  plant  itself  only  lasts  for 
one  or  two  years,  it  ought  to  be  used  in  lays  of  short  dura- 
tion. In  mixtures  on  warm  and  favorable  soils,  it  reaches 
maturity  and  propagates  by  sowing  its  own  seeds." 

The  plant  is  normally  an  annual,  but  with  perennating 
forms.  Its  small  size  is  the  principal  objection  to  its 
culture,  but  where  it  once  becomes  established,  it  makes 
a  valuable  addition  to  pastures,  even  on  very  poor  soils. 
Planted  thickly  in  late  summer  or  early  fall,  the  plants 
will  make  a  dense  mass  of  herbage  10  to  16  inches  deep 
by  the  following  May  or  June.  In  this  way  it  has  much 
the  same  use  as  crimson  clover,  but  it  will  withstand  much 


CRIMSON   CLOVER  AND   OTHER   ANNUALS      437 

greater  cold,  more  even  than  red  clover.  Mixtures  with 
crimson  clover  are  very  satisfactory,  but  probably  do  not 
increase  the  total  yield.  Under  like  conditions,  yellow 
trefoil  will  probably  not  yield  more  than  three-fourths 
as  much  as  crimson  clover,  but  with  its  wider  range  of 
adaptation  and  cheap  seed  should  fill  a  niche  in  American 
agriculture.  Difficulty  in  establishing  trefoil  may  be  ex- 
pected until  the  ground  has  become  inoculated  for  it. 

Werner  gives  the  average  seed  yield  as  440  to  700 
pounds  an  acre.  The  commercial  supply  has  been  scarce 
in  recent  years,  perhaps  because  the  practice  of  using  it 
as  an  adulterant  of  alfalfa  has  greatly  diminished. 

BUR  CLOVERS  (Medicago  spp.) 

528.  Bur  clovers.  —  There  are  about  40  species  of  these 
plants  native  to  the  countries  about  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 
Most  of  these,  probably  all,  are  annuals,  springing  up  in 
the  fall,  and  maturing  in  early  summer.  They  are  all 
procumbent  or  prostrate  plants  when  growing  isolated, 
but  if  planted  thickly,  make  a  mass  of  herbage  8  to  18 
inches  deep.  The  species  are  distinguished  largely  by 
the  burs  or  pods,  which  show  a  wide  variation  in  size  and 
form. 

In  America  two  species  have  thus  far  become  used  in 
agriculture ;  namely,  the  toothed  bur  clover  (Medicago 
hispida)  and  the  spotted  bur  clover  (Medicago  arabica), 
the  former  especially  in  California,  the  latter  mainly  in 
the  Southern  States. 

Among  the  other  species  that  are  likely  to  become  of 
importance  are  button  clover  (Medicago  orbicularis)  and 
snail  clover  (Medicago  scutellata),  both  with  large  smooth 
pods. 

Toothed  bur  clover.  —  Toothed  bur  clover  is  also  known 


438         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 

as  California  bur  clover,  as  it  is  especially  abundant  in 
that  state.  It  was  early  introduced  into  California,  where 
it  has  become  widespread  and  proven  valuable  for  pastur- 
age both  on  cultivated  and  on  range  lands.  The  same 
species  is  also  abundant  in  Argentina,  Chile  and  Australia. 
The  burs  get  caught  in  the  fleece  of  sheep,  and  in  recent 
years  seed  has  been  saved  and  cleaned  in  Europe  from 
the  rubbish  taken  out  of  wool. 

While  toothed  bur  clover  is  most  abundant  in  Califor- 
nia, it  also  occurs  in  Washington  and  Oregon,  and  to  some 
extent  in  the  Southern  States.  In  the  latter  region  it  is 
not  as  well  adapted  as  spotted  bur  clover,  and  instances 
are  known  where  the  toothed  bur  clover  was  winter-killed 
when  the  spotted  was  uninjured. 

Toothed  bur  clover  can  hardly  be  called  a  cultivated 
crop,  but  where  it  persists  it  furnishes  a  large  amount  of 
pasturage,  both  on  cultivated  and  on  uncultivated  land. 
Even  after  the  burs  are  ripe  and  dry  they  are  eaten  eagerly 
by  sheep.  A  considerable  amount  of  bur  clover  seed  is 
harvested  incidentally  with  wheat  in  California,  and  from 
this  source  all  of  the  American-grown  seed  is  obtained. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  toothed  bur  clover ,  differ- 
ing in  the  character  of  the  fruits,  two  of  them  having  spine- 
less burs;  namely,  confinis  with  3  coils,  and  reticulata 
with  5  coils  to  the  pod. 

Spotted  bur  clover.  —  Spotted  bur  clover  differs  from 
toothed  bur  clover  in  having  a  dark  purple  spot  on  each 
leaflet,  and  in  the  pods  being  beset  with  longer  and  softer 
bristles  and  the  edges  of  the  coils  furrowed.  A  spineless 
variety,  inermis,  is  also  known. 

Spotted  bur  clover  is  less  abundant  in  California  and 
more  plentiful  in  the  Southern  States  than  toothed  bur 
clover.  This  may  be  partly  incidental  to  earlier  introduc- 


CRIMSON  CLOVER  AND   OTHER  ANNUALS     439 

tion,  but  apparently  spotted  bur  clover  is  better  adapted 
to  the  conditions  in  the  Southern  States.  It  is  quite 
certain  that  it  is  more  resistant  to  winter  cold,  withstand- 
ing a  temperature  of  about  15°  F.  without  injury.  Its 
area  of  usefulness  extends  from  North  Carolina  to  Arkansas 
and  southward,  both  on  sandy  and  clayey  soils. 

Bur  clover  maybe  sown  anytime  from  August  to  Novem- 
ber. If  the  seed  is  hulled,  it  should  be  sown  at  the  rate  of 
15  pounds  an  acre  and  harrowed  in  lightly.  In  the  bur 
the  seed  weighs  10  pounds  to  the  bushel,  and  two  bushels 
should  be  sown  to  the  acre,  harrowing  or  brushing  it  in 
lightly.  When  sown  in  the  bur,  the  resultant  plants  are 
nearly  always  abundantly  noduled,  but  this  is  seldom  the 
case  when  hulled  seed  is  planted  in  new  ground.  Bur 
clover  reseeds  itself  readily,  even  if  the  ground  is  plowed  in 
late  May  or  June  for  a  summer  crop,  but  it  is  never  trouble- 
some as  a  weed.  Its  use  for  winter  pasturage  in  the  South 
is  increasing. 

Commercial  seed  of  spotted  bur  clover  occurs  as  yet 
only  in  the  bur  and  often  contains  much  straw  and  other 
trash.  The  seeds  are  raked  up  from  the  ground  after  the 
plants  have  become  thoroughly  dry  so  that  the  pods  readily 
detach. 

DAKOTA  VETCH  (Hosackia  americana  or  Lotus  americanus) 

529.  Dakota  vetch  is  •  a  close  relative  of  bird's-foot 
trefoil  and  has  been  called  prairie  bird's-foot  trefoil.  It 
is  native  to  the  western  United  States  from  Minnesota 
and  Arkansas  west  to  the  Pacific.  It  is  especially  abun- 
dant in  the  Pacific  States.  The  plant  is  a  slender-stemmed, 
loosely  branched  annual,  growing  12  to  24  inches  high ; 
leaves  trifoliolate ;  flowers  small,  yellow  and  red ;  pods 
linear,  pendent. 


440        FOEAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

Dakota  vetch  has  long  been  recognized  by  cattlemen  as 
an  excellent  native  forage  plant  and  on  this  account  was 
recommended  for  cultivation  by  the  South  Dakota  Experi- 
ment Station  in  1894.  The  plant  and  yield  is  so  small, 
however,  that  the  returns  do  not  warrant  its  culture.  A 
large  percentage  of  the  seed  —  at  least  of  the  California 
form  —  is  hard  and  does  not  germinate. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
PEAS  AND  PEA-LIKE  PLANTS 

PEAS  are  grown  more  extensively  for  the  seed  than  for 
the  herbage.  In  mixed  cultures,  however,  especially  with 
oats,  peas  make  an  excellent  quality  of  hay.  The  seeds 
are  valuable  both  for  human  food  and  as  feed  for 
domestic  animals.  In  contrast  with  the  various  kinds  of 
beans,  peas  never  cause  digestive  disturbances. 

PEA  (Pisum  sativum) 

530.  Botany  and  history  of  the  pea.  —  The  pea  is 
native  to  the  Mediterranean  region  of  southern  Europe 
and  north  Africa,  extending  eastward  to  the  Himalayas. 
Its  culture  is  in  all  probability  very  ancient,  seeds  having 
been  found  in  the  remains  of  the  lake  dwellings  in  Switzer- 
land. De  Candolle,  who  considers  the  field  pea  distinct 
from  the  garden  pea,  inclines  to  the  belief  that  the  culture 
of  the  former  is  not  ancient. 

It  is  customary  to  distinguish  agriculturally  between 
the  garden  pea  (Pisum  hortense)  and  the  field  or  Can- 
ada pea  (Pisum  -arvense),  but  whatever  distinguishing 
characteristics  are  used,  there  are  all  possible  intergrades 
in  the  long  series  of  cultivated  varieties.  In  general  the 
term  field  pea  is  restricted  to  those  having  somewhat  angled, 
brown  to  black  or  marbled  or  speckled  seeds,  and  colored 
flowers;  garden  pea,  to  those  having  white  flowers  and 

441 


442        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 


round  yellow  seeds.     But  several  varieties  are  used  both 

for  vegetables  and  for  forage. 

A  third   group   of   varieties,  the   sugar  peas  (variety 

saccharatum) ,  is  distinguished  by  having  broad,  flat,  tender 

pods,  which  are  used 
as  a  vegetable  after 
the  manner  of  snap 
beans.  Most  of  these 
have  the  pods  green, 
but  in  one  variety 
they  are  yellow. 

531.  Description. 
-  The  pea  (Fig.  51) 
is  an  annual  plant 
with  hollow  stems 
varying  in  length 
from  1J  to  10  feet, 
according  to  variety 
and  conditions.  The 
entire  herbage  is  pale 
and  glaucous.  The 
stems  are  weak,  usu- 
ally decumbent  at 
base  and  much  in- 
clined to  lodge.  The 
leaves  are  pinnate 
with  1  to  3  pairs  of 

leaflets  and  one  or  more  pairs  of  tendrils  besides  the  tip  of 

the  rachis,  by  which  the  plant  clings  to  supports.     The 

stout,  axillary  peduncles  each  bear  1  to  3  flowers.     The 

pods  are  green  or  rarely  yellow. 

The  root  system  is  rather  shallow,  not  exceeding  three 

feet,  but  nevertheless  the  pea  is  fairly  resistant  to  drought. 


FIG.  51.  —  Field  pea. 


PEAS  AND   PEA-LIKE  PLANTS  443 

532.  Adaptations.  —  Field   peas   are   adapted   only   to 
moderate  temperatures ;    and  while  they  will  withstand 
heavy  frosts,  they  quickly  succumb  to  high  temperatures, 
especially  if  combined  with  humidity.     As  their  period 
of  growth  is  short, — 60  to  100  days  for  hay,  80  to  120  days 
for  seed,  —  they  may  be  grown  as  summer  crops  in  the 
North,  winter  crops  in  regions  where  the  temperature 
rarely  falls  below  freezing  and  spring  or   fall  crops   in 
intermediate  areas.     The  non-adaptation  of  field  peas  to 
heat  is  frequently  seen  as  far  north  as  Maryland,  where 
the  crop  is  often  severely  injured  by  hot  weather  in  May. 
Their  preference  for  a  cool  growing  season  has  led  to  their 
being  much  more  extensively  grown  in  Canada  than  in  the 
United  States, 

Field  peas  are  not  particular  in  regard  to  humidity, 
thriving  well  both  in  humid  and  in  semi-arid  regions,  but 
they  succeed  best  in  regions  of  moderate  rainfall. 

They  do  best  on  loams  or  clay  loams,  but  will  succeed 
on  most  soil  types,  if  well  drained.  Like  the  majority 
of  leguminous  plants,  they  prefer  an  abundance  of  lime  in 
the  soil. 

533.  Importance.  —  Field  peas  are  more  important  in 
Ontario,   Michigan   and   Wisconsin  than    in    any  other 
states  or  provinces.     To  some  extent  they  are  grown  in 
most  of  the  northern  tier  of  states  in  the  Union  and  in 
all  the  southern  provinces  of  Canada.     In   1909,   there 
were  in  Ontario,  258,  461  acres  ;  in  Michigan,  94,932  acres ; 
and  in  Wisconsin,  78,017  acres. 

534.  Agricultural    varieties.  —  The    varieties    of    field 
peas  are  very  numerous,  probably  numbering  over  100 
and  not  including  any  of  the  more  numerous  sorts  of 
garden  peas. 

Varieties  differ  in  such  characters  as  degree  of  earliness. 


444        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR    CULTURE 

height,  color  of  flowers,  size  of  pods  and  especially  in  the 
size,  shape  and  color  of  the  seeds.  The  seeds  may  be 
either  globose  or  more  or  less  shrunken  and  angular.  The 
angular  form  is  due  to  a  higher  sugar  content  and  conse- 
quent greater  shrinkage  in  drying.  The  color  of  the  seeds 
when  of  a  single  tint  may  be  yellow,  pea-green,  brown  or 
black.  Yellow  or  green  seeds  may  be  marbled  with  brown, 
or  speckled  with  blue-black  or  brown  or  both  marbled  and 
speckled.  The  embryos  are  yellow  in  yellow  seeds,  and 
green  in  green  seeds. 

The  earliest  varieties  will  mature  seed  in  73  days  in 
Canada,  while  the  very  late  ones  require  109  days. 

Among  the  better  known  varieties  are  the  following  :  — 

Arthur.  —  This  variety  has  round  yellow  seeds  of 
medium  size.  It  is  an  early,  productive  variety  which 
originated  at  Ottawa,  Canada.  It  is  now  one  of  the 
most  important  varieties  in  Canada. 

Golden  Vine.  —  The  Golden  Vine,  also  called  the  French 
June,  is  perhaps  the  most  widely  grown  variety  of  field 
pea  in  the  United  States.  It  is  a  medium-early  pea,  hav- 
ing a  white  blossom  and  small  round  cream-colored  seeds, 
and  makes  good  yields  of  both  forage  and  seed. 

Marrowfat.  —  This  name  has  been  loosely  applied  to  a 
class  of  large  cream-seeded  varieties  rather  than  to  a 
definite  variety.  This  variety  has  a  white  blossom  and 
is  medium  to  late,  maturing  about  a  week  later  fhan  the 
Golden  Vine,  and  makes  large  quantities  of  forage  with 
fair  yields  of  seed. 

Canadian  Beauty.  —  An  early  variety  resembling  Mar- 
rowfat, maturing  at  about  the  same  time  as  the  Golden  Vine. 
It  makes  a  large  growth  of  vine  and  fair  yields  of  seed. 

Blackeye  Marrowfat.  —  The  seeds  of  the  Blackeye  Mar- 
rowfat are  similar  in  appearance  to  the  regular  Marrowfat 


PEAS  AND  PEA-LIKE  PLANTS  445 

except  for  the  black  hilum.  This  variety  matures  a  trifle 
earlier  than  the  Marrowfat  and  about  five  days  later  than 
the  Golden  Vine. 

Prussian  Blue.  —  One  of  the  "  blue  "-seeded  forms  of 
the  field  pea,  the  seeds  being  round,  smooth  and  bluish 
green.  This  also  has  a  white  blossom  and  is  rather  late, 
maturing  about  eleven  days  after  the  Golden  Vine.  It 
makes  good  yields  of  both  forage  and  seed. 

Wisconsin  Blue.  — A  "  blue  "-seeded  form  similar  to  the 
Prussian  Blue,  but  about  four  days  later  in  maturing.  In 
yield  of  forage  and  seed  it  is  about  equal  to  the  Prussian 
Blue,  but  it  has,  perhaps,  a  trifle  heavier  growth  of  vine. 

Early  Britain.  —  The  season  of  maturity  of  the  Early 
Britain  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  the  Golden  Vine. 
The  blossoms,  however,  are  colored  and  the  seeds  large 
and  of  a  brown  color.  This  variety,  although  not  sc  well 
known  as  the  Golden  Vine  and  the  Marrowfat,  is  valuable 
from  both  seed  and  forage  standpoints. 

As  a  result  of  extensive  tests  in  Canada,  the  following 
varieties  proved  in  the  order  given  the  most  satisfactory 
for  each  province  :  — 

For  Ontario.  —  Arthur,  Chancellor,  Golden  Vine,  White 
Marrowfat,  Prussian  Blue,  Wisconsin  Blue  and  English  Grey. 

For  Manitoba.  —  Arthur,  Chancellor,  Golden  Vine,  English 
Grey  and  Prussian  Blue. 

For  Saskatchewan.  —  Arthur,  Chancellor,  Golden  Vine  and 
Prussian  Blue. 

For  Alberta.  —  English  Grey,  Arthur,  Chancellor  and  Golden 
Vine. 

For  British  Columbia.  —  Chancellor,  Arthur,  Golden  Vine 
and  Prussian  Blue. 

For  Nova  Scotia.  —  Arthur,  White  Marrowfat,  Daniel 
O'Rourke,  Golden  Vine  and  Prussian  Blue. 

For  Prince  Edward  Island.  —  Arthur,  Prussian  Blue,  White 
Marrowfat  and  Golden  Vine. 


446         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 

New  varieties  that  have  succeeded  well  in  the  western 
United  States  are  Concordia  from  Sweden,  with  large, 
round,  yellow  seeds;  Amraoti  from  India,  with  small, 
smooth,  pale  yellow  seeds;  Bangalia  from  India,  with 
dull  green,  somewhat  shrunken  seeds ;  and  Kaiser  from 
Germany,  with  grayish  seeds  speckled  with  blue.  The 
last  named  is  very  reliable  and  will  withstand  heat  and 
humidity  combined  better  than  any  other  variety  known. 

535.  Seeding.  —  Peas  should  be  sown  in  temperate 
regions  as  early  in  the  spring  as  danger  from  heavy  frosts 
is  over,  and  in  tropical  or  subtropical  regions  as  soon  as 
the  cool  season  begins,  or  at  least  in  time  to  mature  before 
very  hot  weather.  In  the  Southern  States  it  is  sometimes 
possible  to  sow  in  fall  and  make  a  hay  crop  before  winter. 
In  the  North  fall  preparation  of  the  soil  is  desirable  so 
that  the  peas  may  be  sown  in  early  spring.  Where  early 
and  late  seedings  have  been  compared,  the  yield  is  usually 
highest  from  the  early  plantings  and  falls  off  quite  rapidly 
in  the  later  plantings. 

The  rate  of  seeding  an  acre  varies  from  1^  bushels 
for  varieties  with  small  seeds  to  3  bushels  for  those  with 
very  large  seeds. 

The  seed  may  be  sown  broadcast  or  drilled.  The  latter 
method  is  preferable  on  account  of  the  more  even  germina- 
tion. When  broadcasted  by  hand,  they  may  be  plowed 
under  lightly,  or,  if  sown  on  freshly  plowed  soil,  covered 
with  a  disk  or  drag  harrow.  In  Ontario  experiments  ex- 
tending over  a  period  of  more  than  4  years,  the  yield  of 
peas  was  slightly  larger  when  the  seed  was  drilled  than 
when  broadcasted,  but  in  no  case  was  the  difference  as 
great  as  10  per  cent. 

The  seed  should  be  covered  to  a  depth  of  1J  to  3  inches, 
depending  on  the  nature  of  the  soil.  At  the  Michigan 


PEAS  AND  PEA-LIKE  PLANTS 


447 


Experiment  Station  peas  germinated  best  when  planted 
4  inches  deep.  Even  when  planted  8  inches  deep,  some 
of  the  plants  emerged. 

536.  Development  of  the  plant.  —  Stewart  at  the  Utah 
Experiment  Station  has  made  a  careful  study  of  the  com- 
position of  the  Golden  Vine  pea  at  various  stages  of 
growth,  when  grown  under  irrigation.  Some  of  his  results 
are  shown  in  the  following  table  :  — 


DATE  AND  STAGE  OF 
CUTTING 

YIELD 
DRY 
MATTER 

TO   THE 

ACRE 

PERCENT- 
AGE OF 
LEAVES 
DRY 
WEIGHT 

PROTEIN 

PERCENT- 
AGE OP 
STALKS 

PERCENT 

AGE   OF 

FLOWERS 
AND  PODS 

Pounds 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

June  19  —  9  inches  high 

936 

79 

22.3 

21 

0 

June  26  — 

1628 

76.6 

26.1 

23.4 

0 

July    3- 

2583 

72.8 

23.2 

27.2 

0 

July  10  —  early  bloom 

4997 

67 

26.7 

27.8 

5.2 

July  17- 

4412 

56.7 

24.2 

28.7 

14.6 

July  24  —  pods  filled 

3496 

48.6 

20 

19.7 

31.7 

July  31  —  pods  ripe 

2658 

40.9 

22.2 

17 

42.1 

537.  Hay.  —  Field  peas  are  usually  cut  for  hay  when 
the  first  pods  are  full  grown  but  not  yet  filled,  but  cutting 
may  be  delayed  until  the  leaves  begin  to  turn  yellow. 
This,  however,  will  result  in  the  hay  containing  many 
seeds. 

At  the  Utah  Experiment  Station  Golden  Vine  peas 
cut  in  bloom  gave  a  larger  yield  to  the  acre  than  when  cut 
late. 

The  yield  of  hay  from  peas  alone  probably  averages 
less  than  1  ton  an  acre.  Partly  on  this  account,  and 
partly  because  of  easier  harvesting,  they  are  nearly  al- 
ways sown  mixed  with  oats  when  intended  for  hay. 


448        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

At  the  Washington  Experiment  Station  7  varieties  of 
field  peas  cut  for  hay  gave  an  average  yield  of  5620 
pounds  an  acre  in  1909,  while  in  1910  the  average  of  11 
varieties  was  2730  pounds ;  at  the  Michigan  Upper 
Peninsula  Station  the  average  hay  yield  an  acre  of  7  va- 
rieties was  4100  pounds,  the  best  being  Golden  Vine  with 
5060  pounds ;  at  the  South  Dakota  Experiment  Station 
two  varieties  yielded  1400  and  1520  pounds  to  the  acre. 

538.  Pea's  and  oats.  —  One  of  the  oldest  mixtures  of 
a  legume  and  non-legume  for  hay  is  peas  and  oats,  both 
of  which  require  much  the  same  conditions,  except  that 
oats  will  withstand  more  cold.     The  advantage  of  the 
mixture  is  that  the  oats  support  the  peas  so  that  mowing 
is  much  easier.     The  rate  of  seeding  is  1  to  2  bushels  of 
peas  and  1  to  2  bushels  of  oats  to  an  acre. 

At  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College  the  best  results 
were  secured  with  2  bushels  of  peas  and  1  bushel  of  oats, 
and  the  next  best  with  2  bushels  of  each  to  the  acre.  The 
average  yield  of  peas  and  oats  during  7  years  was  12.08 
tons  green  substance  and  3.26  tons  dry  hay  to  the  acre. 

The  crop  is  cut  for  hay  when  the  oats  are  in  the  early 
dough  stage,  but  both  may  be  allowed  to  mature  and  the 
seeds  separated  after  thrashing. 

Other  cereals  are  not  quite  as  satisfactory  as  oats  to 
grow  with  peas.  Six-year  average  yields  at  the  Ontario 
Agricultural  College  in  green  weight  to  the  acre  were  as 
follows :  peas  and  oats,  7.93  tons ;  peas  and  barley,  7.20 
tons ;  peas,  barley  and  oats,  7.07  tons ;  barley  and  oats, 
6.78  tons ;  peas  and  wheat,  6.03  tons. 

539.  Pasture  value.  —  Peas  are  sometimes  utilized  by 
pasturing  to  hogs  or  sheep.     Shaw  states  that  1  acre  of 
peas .  at  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station  furnished  in 
1895  pasture  sufficient  to  feed  1  sheep  for  345  days. 


PEAS   AND  PEA-LIKE   PLANTS  449 

The  pasturing  of  field  peas  to  fatten  lambs  has  become 
an  important  industry  in  the  mountain  valleys  of  Colorado. 
As  a  rule  the  peas  are  sown  with  a  small  quantity  of  wheat 
or  oats  to  support  the  vines.  The  lambs  or  sheep  are 
turned  'into  the  pea  fields  when  the  peas  are  mature  and 
are  fed  upon  them  for  70  to  120  days.  These  pea-fattened 
lambs  command  a  high  price  in  the  market. 

540.  Garden  pea  vines.  —  At  canning  factories  where 
the  green  peas  are  separated  from  the  vines  by  special 
machinery,  the  refuse  vines  are  utilized  as  feed,  being  fed 
green,  cured  into  hay  or  preserved  as  silage.     It  is  some- 
times made  into  silage  by  putting  the  green  vines  in  large 
stacks,  this  being  the  common  method  at  canneries.     Pea- 
vine  silage  has  proven  to  be  a  good  feed  for  dairy  cows  as 
well  as  for  beef  cattle  and  sheep.     In  1908,  96  canneries 
handled  the  pea  vines  grown  in  66,959  acres,  and  about 
60  per  cent  of  the  refuse  vines  were  preserved  as  silage,  the 
rest  being  fed  green  or  cured  into  hay. 

541.  Irrigation.  —  Peas  may  be  grown  under  irrigation, 
but  it  is  doubtful  if  so  short-lived  a  forage  crop  will  prove 
desirable  for  this  purpose. 

At  the  Wyoming  Experiment  Station  small  plots  were 
irrigated  1  to  7  times,  using  about  3  to  5  inches  of  water 
at  an  application.  The  yields  of  hay  increased  with  the 
number  of  irrigations,  the  heaviest  being  4.2  tons  an  acre 
from  7  applications,  aggregating  23  inches  of  water. 

For  seed-production  4  irrigations,  aggregating  20  inches, 
gave  a  yield  of  34.75  bushels  to  the  acre,  much  more  than 
was  obtained  by  using  either  more  or  fewer  irrigations. 

542.  Seed-production.  —  Peas    are    usually   harvested 
with  an  ordinary  mower  having  an  attachment  in  front  of 
the  knife  so  that  the  tangled  vines  are  lifted  up  from  the 
ground.     Two  men  follow  behind  the  mower  and  roll  the 

2o 


450        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 

pea  vines  back  in  a  row  or  in  bunches,  so  as  to  be  out  of 
the  way  of  the  mower  when  the  next  swath  is  cut.  Some 
machines  have  a  platform  behind  the  mower,  from  which 
the  vines  are  thrown  at  short  intervals  in  bunches. 

From  a  small  area  the  seed  may  be  flailed,  but  -usually 
grain  thrashers  are  used.  Precautions  must  be  taken  to 
avoid  cracking  too  much  of  the  seed ;  namely,  by  remov- 
ing most  of  the  teeth  from  the  concaves,  and  by  reducing 
the  speed.  If  the  crop  is  well  cured,  the  seed  thrashes  out 
very  easily. 

Extensive  work  has  been  conducted  at  most  of  the 
Canadian  Experimental  Farms  in  testing  field  peas  for 
grain  production. 

The  average  yield  of  the  12  best  varieties  tested  for 
6  to  8  years  at  5  Canadian  stations  was  2141  pounds,  some- 
what over  35  bushels.  At  Ottawa  the  12  best  varieties 
averaged  2018  pounds  to  an  acre ;  at  Brandon,  Manitoba, 
2602  pounds;  at  Nappan,  N.  S.,  1917  pounds;  at  Indian 
Head,  Saskatchewan,  2253  pounds.  The  maximum 
yield  reported  is  85  bushels  to  an  acre,  a  yield  reached 
by  the  Mackay  variety  at  Brandon,  Manitoba,  in  1904. 

The  average  yield  for  Canada  in  1909  was  19.34  bushels 
an  acre  and  in  1910,  13.38  bushels. 

In  the  table  opposite  are  given  the  results  of  long- 
continued  tests  at  7  experimental  farms  in  Canada. 

At  the  Montana  Experiment  Station,  the  average  yield 
of  peas  for  2  years  of  all  varieties  tested  was  39.5  bushels, 
and  at  the  Washington  Experiment  Station  7  varieties 
gave  the  following  yields  of  seed  to  the  acre:  Potter,  23.7 
bushels  ;  Canadian  Beauty,  23  ;  White  Marrowfat,  20.3 ; 
Early  Britain,  21 ;  Scotch,  20 ;  Golden  Vine,  18.7 ;  Prus- 
sian Blue,  16.7. 

543.   Seed.  —  Peas   germinate  readily  at  low  tempera- 


PEAS  AND  PEA-LIKE  PLANTS 


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452         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 

tures.  The  seed  retains  its  viability  well  for  5  years  and 
then  quickly  deteriorates.  The  legal  weight  of  a  bushel  is 
60  pounds,  but  a  bushel  may  weigh  as  high  as  68  pounds, 
or  as  low  as  52  pounds. 

Large  seed  is  preferable  to  small  seed  of  the  same  variety. 
In  two-year  trials  at  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College  the 
yield  from  the  large  seed  averaged  26.2  bushels  of  peas 
and  1.14  tons  of  straw  to  an  acre,  while  the  small  seed 
yielded  22.6  bushels  of  peas  and  1.04  tons  of  straw. 

544.  Pea-weeyil  (Laria  pisorum  or  Bruchus  pisorum). 
-  The  most  serious  enemy  of  the  pea,  especially  when 
grown  for  seed-production,  is  the  pea-weevil.  This  insect 
lays  its  eggs  in  the  very  young  pea  pods,  and  the  larva 
upon  hatching  burrows  into  the  soft  young  seeds,  only  one 
larva  entering  each  seed.  The  larvae  grow  with  the  seed 
and  remain  therein  until  they  become  adult  beetles.  Nor- 
mally the  beetles  do  not  emerge  until  spring,  in  fact  usually 
being  in  the  seed  when  planted ;  but  if  the  seed  is  stored 
in  a  warm  room,  they  emerge  sooner.  There  is  only  one 
generation  a  year,  and  the  insects  do  not  multiply  in  the 
stored  seeds. 

Seed  may  be  rid  of  weevils  in  two  ways ;  namely,  by 
fumigating  with  carbon  bisulfide,  so  as  to  destroy  the 
insects  without  injuring  the  seeds  (Par.  625) ;  or  by  keeping 
the  seeds  over  one  season  in  tight  bags  or  other  receptacles 
The  beetles  all  emerge  from  the  seeds  and,  being  unable 
to  escape,  perish. 

Where  peas  are  grown  each  year,  weevils  tend  to  be- 
come increasingly  abundant,  and  finally  make  it  impos- 
sible to  grow  crops  of  satisfactory  seed.  If,  however,  their 
planting  is  suspended  for  2  to  3  years,  the  weevils  are 
nearly  eradicated.  The  growing  of  peas  for  seed  is  prac- 
tically limited  to  those  regions  where  weevil  injury  is 


PEAS  AND  PEA-LIKE  PLANTS  453 

least.     Weeviled  seed  shows  greatly  reduced  germination, 
usually  not  over  half  of  the  seeds  making  plants. 

In  Ontario  both  grass-peas  and  chick-peas  have  been 
grown  to  some  extent  in  place  of  field  peas,  as  they  are  not 
attacked  by  the  pea-weevil 

CHICK-PEA  (Cicer  arietinum) 

545.  The  chick-pea  is  probably  a  native  of  western 
Asia.  It  was  cultivated  in  ancient  Greece  and  probably 
quite  early  in  India.  The  plant  has  numerous  other 
names,  among  them  coffee  bean,  Idaho  pea,  Egyptian  pea, 
Gipsy  pea,  garbanzo  and  Madras  gram.  At  the  present- 
day  its  culture  is  important  in  India,  Syria,  Spain  and 
Mexico,  being  grown  mainly  for  the  seeds,  which  are  used 
as  human  food. 

The  plant  is  a  branched  annual,  growing  to  a  height  of 
1  to  2  feet ;  leaves  odd-pinnate  with  7  pairs  of  oval  toothed 
leaflets ;  flowers  small,  white  or  pink,  solitary ;  pods  thin, 
inflated,  less  than  1  inch  long,  each  having  1  or  2  seeds. 
The  whole  herbage  is  sparsely  covered  with  glandular 
hairs  which  secrete  an  acid  substance. 

The  varieties  are  numerous,  differing  in  the  size  and 
shape  of  the  seeds,  and  in  Palestine,  it  is  said,  in  their  soil 
and  seasonal  adaptations.  The  variety  grown  in  Spain 
and  Mexico  is  that  with  the  largest  seeds,  which  are  pale 
straw  color. 

In  a  general  way  the  adaptations  of  the  chick-pea  are 
like  those  of  the  common  garden  pea,  the  plant  requiring 
a  cool  season  for  its  best  growth. 

It  does  not,  however,  withstand  humidity  as  well  as  the 
garden  pea,  preferring  a  rather  dry  atmosphere.  The 
crop  is  grown  in  winter  in  India,  Spain,  Mexico  and  to  a 


454        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 

slight  extent  in  California.  In  the  latter  state  it  was 
uninjured  by  a  temperature  of  13°  Fahrenheit. 

As  a  spring-sown  crop  the  chick-pea  has  done  fairly 
well  in  Idaho,  Washington,  Colorado,  Iowa  and  Ontario. 
At  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College  it  has  produced  an 
average  annual  yield  of  35.6  bushels  seed  and  1  ton  of 
straw  to  an  acre,  and  the  average  yield  obtained  by  56 
farmers  was  19.8  bushels  to  an  acre.  In  cold  seasons, 
however,  it  does  not  thrive.  The  seeds  are  free  from 
attack  by  the  pea- weevil. 

The  hay  or  straw  of  the  plant  is  not  liked  by  animals  on 
account  of  the  acid  secretion,  which  is  said  to  be  injurious 
both  to  cattle  and  horses.  In  any  case  its  very  small 
yield  does  not  justify  growing  the  plant  for  hay. 

GRASS-PEA  (Lathyrus  sativus) 

546.  The  grass-pea,  vetchling  or  chickling  vetch,  is 
native  to  the  Mediterranean  region  eastward  to  central 
Asia.  Its  culture,  which  is  very  ancient,  probably  began 
in  the  region  south  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  Seeds  have  been 
found  in  the  ruins  of  Troy,  in  ancient  Egyptian  graves  and 
with  human  remains  of  the  stone  age  in  Hungary.  In  the 
Old  World  the  plant  is  more  or  less  cultivated  in  India, 
western  Asia  and  the  south  of  Europe.  The  seeds  are 
used  as  human  food,  but  it  is  said  that  if  eaten  continu- 
ously they  are  likely  to  cause  paralysis.  This  deleterious 
character  is,  however,  probably  restricted  to  the  varieties 
with  colored  seeds. 

The  plant  is  an  annual  and  has  much  the  same  adapta- 
tions as  the  pea,  which  in  a  general  way  it  resembles. 
The  stems  are  wing-margined  and  grow  2  to  3  feet  high ; 
the  pinnate  leaves  have  but  a  single  pair  of  narrow  lanceo- 
late leaflets  and  tendrils  at  the  tip ;  the  long-peduncled 


PEAS   AND   PEA-LIKE  PLANTS  455 

flowers  are  solitary  and  either  white  or  blue  ;  the  pods  are 
4-5  seeded;  the  seeds  are  easily  distinguished  by  being 
wedge  shaped.  There  are  probably  ten  or  more  varieties, 
distinguished  most  easily  by  the  color  of  the  flower  and 
the  size  and  color  of  the  seeds.  The  latter  may  be  yellow, 
brown  or  variously  marbled  and  speckled. 

The  grass-pea  does  not  grow  as  tall  as  the  field  pea, 
but  in  yield  of  hay  and  grain  it  compares  favorably,  .  Its 
value  lies  mainly  in  the  fact  that  its  seeds  are  never  at- 
tacked by  the  pea-weevil  and  seed  crops  can  therefore  be 
grown  where  weevils  are  too  numerous  for  the  field  pea. 

In  America  they  have  been  grown  mainly  in  Ontario, 
but  in  small  trials  have  been  found  to  succeed  in  Iowa, 
Texas,  Washington  and  California,  and  probably  will 
thrive  wherever  the  garden  pea  can  be  grown.  At  the 
Ontario  Agricultural  College,  a  variety  with  white  flowers 
and  yellow  seeds  has  been  extensively  tested  and  has 
given  good  results  except  in  the  cold  wet  seasons.  The 
average  acre  yield  of  seed  for  7  years  up  to  1902  was  25.7 
bushels  and  the  maximum  43  bushels,  yields  but  slightly 
smaller  than  the  best  field  peas.  The  average  yield  of 
straw  was  2.2  tons  to  an  acre,  as  against  1.6  .tons  for  the 
Golden  Vine  pea.  Grass-peas  and  common  vetch  were 
also  tested  in  comparison  during  5  years,  the  average 
green  yield  of  the  former  being  6.7  tons  to  an  acre 
against  6.8  tons  for  the  latter.  In  another  series  of 
tests  the  average  yield  to  an  acre  of  green  fodder  was 
grass-peas,  10  tons ;  common  vetch,  8.93  tons ;  and 
hairy  vetch,  8.65  tons.  More  recent  experience  with 
grass-peas  has  been  less  favorable. 

The  seeds  of  grass-peas  have  about  the  same  feeding 
value  as  field  peas.  A  bushel  weighs  64  pounds. 


CHAPTER   XX 
VETCHES  AND   VETCH-LIKE  PLANTS 

THE  term  "  vetch "  has  in  common  usage  a  rather 
loose  application.  Properly  it  refers  to  species  of  the 
botanical  genus  Vicia,  but  it  is  in  the  cases  of  some  culti- 
vated plants  applied  to  species  in  related  groups  of  plants. 
Thus  crown  vetch  is  a  species  of  Coronilla;  kidney  vetch 
is  Anthyllis  vulneraria;  Dakota  vetch  is  a  species  of 
Hosackia ;  and  several  of  the  vetchlings,  species  of  Lathy- 
rus,  are  sometimes  called  "  vetch." 

Botanists  recognize  about  120  kinds  or  species  of  Vicia, 
of  which  about  50  are  annuals  and  most  of  the  remainder 
perennials.  In  the  United  States,  where  about  20  wild 
kinds  occur,  they  are  commonly  known  as  wild  peas. 
Many  of  tke  species  of  vetch  have  been  more  or  less 
extensively  cultivated,  and  several  others  growing  wild 
are  utilized  for  hay  or  pasturage,  or  in  a  few  cases  the 
seeds  are  used  for  human  food. 

547.  Kinds  of  vetches.  —  The  cultivated  vetches  include 
the  following :  Common  vetch,  or  tares  ( Vicia  saliva] ; 
hairy,  sand  or  Russian  vetch  ( Vicia  villosd) ;  bitter  vetch 
(Vicia  ervilia) ;  scarlet  vetch  ( Vicia  fulgens) ;  purple  vetch 
( Vicia  atropurpurea) ;  Narbonne  vetch  ( Vicia  narbonnen- 
sis) ;  narrow-leaved  vetch  (Vicia  angustifolia) .  Another 
species,  Vicia  Jaba,  is  extensively  cultivated  and  has 
numerous  varieties  known  as  broad  beans,  Windsor  beans, 

450 


VETCHES   AND    VETCH-LIKE   PLANTS  457 

sow  beans,  horse  beans,  and  so  on,  but  the  name  "  vetch  " 
is  never  used  in  referring  to  this  crop.  Only  two  kinds 
of  vetches,  namely,  the  common  vetch  and  the  hairy 
vetch,  are  much  grown  in  the  United  States  at  present,  but 
other  species  are  likely  to  become  of  increasing  importance. 
Thus  bitter  vetch  is  growing  in  favor  as  a  cover  crop 
in  California,  and  scarlet,  purple  and  woolly-podded 
vetches  are  all  excellent,  and  with  cheaper  seed  would 
certainly  be  largely  grown. 

548.  Common  vetch  (Vicia  saliva).  —  Common  vetch, 
or  tares,  is  strictly  an  annual,  having  much  the  same  habit 
as  the  garden  or  English  pea,  but   the  stems  are   more 
slender  and  usually  taller,  growing  3  to  5  feet  or  more  in 
length ;   leaves  pinnate,  with  about  seven  pairs  of  leaflets 
and  a  terminal  tendril ;  flowers  violet-purple,  rarely  white 
and  borne  in  pairs  on  a  very  short  stalk;    pods  brown, 
each   containing   four  or  five  seeds,  which  are  gray  or 
marbled  in  the  commonest  varieties.     At  maturity  the 
pods  readily  coil  and  discharge  the  seeds. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  seed  is  grown  largely  in 
western  Oregon,  where  it  is  usually  fall  sown,  it  has  be- 
come known,  also,  as  Oregon  winter  vetch.  In  contrast 
with  hairy  vetch,  common  vetch  is  also  known  as  smooth 
vetch,  and  sometimes  the  name  English  vetch  is  applied 
to  it.  The  gray-seeded  variety  of  common  vetch  is  the 
one  most  cultivated  in  the  United  States. 

549.  Botany  and  agricultural  history.  —  Common  vetch 
is  native  over  much  of  Europe  and  western  Asia.     The 
species  is  very  variable,  and  numerous  botanical  varie- 
ties have  been  named. 

According  to  De  Candolle,  the  earliest  reference  to  its 
culture  was  by  Cato  about  60  B.C.,  when  it  was  grown 
both  for  seed  and  for  fodder. 


458         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 

Common  vetch  was  grown  in  New  York  as  early  as 
1794. 

550.  Adaptations.  —  Common    vetch    requires    a    cool 
growing   season;    the    winter    strains    will    withstand    a 
temperature  as  low   as   10°  F.  without   injury,  but   zero 
weather  results  in  much  winter-killing.     Vetch  is  therefore 
planted  in  the  fall  on  the  Pacific  Coast  and  in  the  South. 
In  the   Northern  States   and   Canada  spring  sowing   is 
necessary.     It   languishes,   however,   under   hot   summer 
weather  and  is  not  adapted  to  the  Central  States. 

It  prefers  a  well-drained  soil  and  will  not  thrive  in  poorly 
drained  land.  It  does  best  in  loams  or  sandy  loams, 
though  excellent  crops  are  grown  both  on  sandy  and  grav- 
elly soils.  On  poor  lands  vetch  is  often  used  as  a  soil 
improver,  and  while  the  yield  may  not  be  large,  to  plant 
it  is  often  good  farm  practice.  On  poor  soils  special  care 
should  be  taken  to  provide  thorough  inoculation,  as  with- 
out it  failures  commonly  result. 

551.  Importance.  —  Common    vetch    is    important    as 
a  hay  crop  west  of    the  Cascade  Mountains  in  Oregon 
and  Washington ;  as  a  winter  green-manure  crop  in  Cali- 
fornia ;  and  as  a  hay  crop  in  the  Southern  States.    In  the 
Northern  States  and  Canada  it  is  but  little  grown,  hairy 
vetch  being  much  better  adapted. 

In  Europe,  vetch  is  probably  the  most  important  annual 
legume  grown  for  forage. 

552.  Agricultural  varieties.  —  The  cultivated  varieties 
of  common  vetch  are  numerous  and  distinguished  mainly 
by  the  size  and  color  of  the  seeds.     The  most  important 
variety  has  the  seeds  gray,  marbled  with  a  darker  color. 
Of  this  there  are  two  strains,  distinguished  in  European 
agriculture  as  spring  vetch  and  winter  vetch.     Pearl  or 
white-seeded  vetch  has  white  seeds  often  used  as  human 


VETCHES  AND    VETCH-LIKE  PLANTS  459 

food.  Sardinian  vetch  has  the  seeds  brown ;  gray  vetch 
is  another  name  for  the  commonest  variety  with  grayish 
seeds. 

553.  Culture.  —  The  seed-bed  for  common  vetch  should 
be  quite  firm.  For  this  reason  it  is  a  common  practice  in 
Oregon  to  broadcast  the  seed  in  wheat  or  oat  stubble  and 
then  go  over  it  with  an  ordinary  disk  harrow,  or  if  the  land 
is  fairly  loose  the  seed  is  simply  sown  in  the  stubble  with  a 
disk  drill.  This  method  gives  satisfactory  results,  espe- 
cially if  the  previous  small-grain  crop  has  been  spring  sown 
and  if  the  vetch  is  sown  quite  early  in  the  fall.  If  the 
planting  is  done  later  or  if  the  previous  grain  crop  was 
fall  sown,  the  land  is  usually  too  compact,  and  thorough 
preparation  of  the  soil  is  advantageous. 

In  the  South  special  preparation  of  the  soil  before  plant- 
ing vetch  is  usually  necessary.  But  few  successes  have 
thus  far  been  noted  by  planting  in  cotton  or  other  culti- 
vated crop,  but  where  the  soil  is  thoroughly  inoculated 
this  method  has  given  excellent  results. 

Common  vetch  seed  may  be  sown  either  broadcast  or 
by  drilling.  Broadcasting  is  the  older  method  and  per- 
haps still  the  most  common,  but  the  use  of  the  drill  has 
greatly  increased  in  recent  years,  especially  in  Oregon. 

Vetch  may  be  sown  alone  or  with  one  of  the  small  grains 
as  a  supporting  crop.  To  sow  with  grain  has  been  and 
still  is  the  commoner  practice  where  the  crop  is  grown 
mainly  for  hay,  as  the  grain  furnishes  a  support  for  the 
weak  stems  of  the  vetch  and  prevents  lodging  to  a  con- 
siderable extent.  Oats  are  the  favorite  grain  to  use  in 
combination  with  vetch,  though  rye,  wheat  and  barley 
may  be  used.  Oats  are  preferred,  not  only  on  account 
of  the  superior  quality  of  oat  hay,  but  from  the  fact  that 
where  a  seed  crop  is  grown  the  oat  seed  can  be  readily 


460        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

separated  from  the  vetch  seed,  while  there  is  greater 
difficulty  with  rye,  wheat,  or  barley. 

Where  vetch  is  used  mainly  as  a  green-manure  crop, 
as  in  southern  California,  it  is  nearly  always  sown  alone. 
In  late  years  in  Oregon  the  tendency  has  been  to  plant 
vetch  alone  when  the  crop  is  grown  for  seed.  This 
change  has  been  brought  about  as  a  result  of  the  high 
prices  charged  for  thrashing,  the  same  price  being  charged 
for  thrashing  vetch  and  wheat  or  oats  combined  as  for 
vetch  alone. 

554.  Time  of  sowing.  —  Common  vetch  is  usually  sown 
in  the  fall,  from  September  till  as  late  as  December.  In 
western  Oregon  and  western  Washington  most  of  it  is 
seeded  in  October,  but  a  growing  tendency  is  to  plant  it 
in  September,  as  the  damage  by  winter-killing  seems  to 
be  reduced.  Pearl  vetch,  which  is  not  winter  hardy,  is 
planted  toward  the  end  of  March,  and  it  is  not  uncommon 
to  plant  common  vetch  at  the  same  time.  Indeed,  some 
dairy  farmers  plant  it  at  various  dates,  so  as  to  use  it  to 
feed  green.  Sown  with  oats  about  October  1,  it  is  ready 
to  feed  about  May  1 ;  planted  later,  it  can  be  cut  about 
June  1 ;  and  if  early  spring  sowing  in  February  or  March 
is  practiced,  the  vetch  can  be  fed  from  June  15  to  July  15. 
When  cut  early  for  soiling,  a  small  second  crop  may  be 
cut  or  used  as  pasture. 

In  southern  California,  when  used  for  green-manuring 
purposes,  common  vetch  is  sown  in  September,  so  that  it 
can  be  plowed  under  by  March. 

In  the  Southern  States,  oats  and  common  vetch  should 
always  be  sown  in  the  fall,  October  being  the  best  month, 
though  the  planting  may  be  delayed  till  the  middle  of 
December.  Early  fall  planting  gives  the  best  results  for 
green  manuring. 


VETCHES  AND    VETCH-LIKE  PLANTS  461 

Where  the  winters  are  severe,  common  vetch  must  be 
planted  in  the  spring,  but  it  is  not  often  grown.  It  suc- 
ceeds wherever  field  peas  do  well,  but  the  field  peas  are 
usually  preferable. 

555.  Rate  of  seeding.  —  Common  vetch  if  sown  alone 
is  perhaJ3s  most  often  seeded  at  the  rate  of  1  bushel  (60 
pounds)  to  the  acre.  This  is  sufficient  to  produce  a  per- 
fect stand  if  there  is  no  winter-killing.  Thus,  in  Oregon, 
it  is  the  common  practice  to  sow  60  pounds  of  seed  to  the 
acre  in  the  foothills  where  the  drainage  is  good  and  the 
amount  of  winter-killing  very  small.  If  a  mixture  be 
sown,  it  varies  from  30  pounds  of  vetch  and  20  pounds  of 
oats  to  double  this  combined  quantity. 

In  the  low-lying  lands,  where  a  certain  amount  of  loss 
is  likely  from  winter-killing,  especially  where  soils  become 
wet,  a  larger  quantity  of  seed,  namely,  from  70  to  90  or 
even  120  pounds,  is  sown.  If  sown  in  combination  with 
oats,  60  pounds  of  vetch  and  40  pounds  of  oats  are  most 
commonly  planted.  The  same  rate  of  seeding  is  used  as 
a  rule  whether  the  crop  is  grown  for  hay  or  for  seed. 
Should  the  prospect  be  good  for  a  high  price  for  seed,  the 
crop  may  be  left  to  mature ;  otherwise  it  is  cut  for  hay. 

Some  growers  plant  as  high  as  2  bushels  of  vetch  to  the 
acre  when  grown  for  seed  alone.  Such  thick  plantings 
stand  up  somewhat  better,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether 
any  material  gain  results. 

In  California,  when  common  vetch  is  planted  as  a  green- 
manure  crop,  the  usual  rate  of  seeding  is  60  pounds  to  the 
acre,  but  as  low  as  40  pounds  are  sometimes  sown. 

In  the  Southern  States  there  is  nearly  as  much  varia- 
bility in  the  seeding  rate  as  in  Oregon,  but  usually  less 
seed  is  sown,  about  40  or  45  pounds  of  vetch  and  8  to  10 
of  oats. 


462         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 

556.  Harvesting  for   hay.  —  Vetch    should   be  cut  for 
hay  from  the  period  of  full  bloom  to  formation  of  the  first 
pods.     It  is  commonly  and  satisfactorily  cut  with  an  ordi- 
nary mower  with  a  swather  attachment.     After  cutting, 
the  vetch  should  be  bunched  with  a  horserake  and  then 
shocked  with  pitchforks.     This   handling  should  always 
be  done  before  the  vetch  leaves  are  dry.     It  should  be 
allowed  to  cure  in  the  shocks  several  days,  and,  if  possible, 
hay  caps  should  be  used,  especially  if  rainy  weather  is 
feared.     Where  a  swather  is  not  used,  the  cutting  is  con- 
siderably more  difficult.     In  either  case  it  is  the  common 
practice  to  allow  the  vetch  to  lie  one  day  before  shocking. 

It  is  sometimes  desirable  to  pasture  fall-sown  vetch  in 
the  spring  so  as  to  bring  the  haying  season  somewhat 
later  and  also  to  prevent  heavy  lodging.  This  is  quite 
commonly  done  in  western  Washington  and  western 
Oregon. 

Common  vetch  yields  from  1J  to  3J  tons  of  hay  to  an 
acre.  An  average  yield  in  the  Pacific  States  is  2|  tons, 
and  in  the  Southern  States  somewhat  less. 

557.  Pasturing.  —  Common  vetch  is  utilized  by  Oregon 
and  Washington  dairymen  for  pasturage  during  winter, 
spring  and    early  summer.     It  is    eagerly  eaten  by  all 
farm  live  stock.     As  a  general  rule,  the  vetch  is  pastured 
only  when  the  ground  is  dry,  not  only  to  avoid  packing 
the  soil  but  because  both  cattle  and  sheep  are  liable  to 
bloat  on  vetch,  especially  in  wet  weather. 

Even  when  vetch  is  grown  primarily  for  hay  or  for  seed, 
a  limited  amount  of  pasturing  is  often  desirable,  especially 
where  the  growth  is  unusually  rank  or  where  it  is  desirable 
to  bring  the  harvest  later.  Hogs  should  not  be  used  for 
this  purpose,  as  they  kill  out  many  of  the  plants  by  biting 
them  off  below  the  crown.  Sheep  and  calves  do  the  least 


VETCHES  AND    VETCH-LIKE  PLANTS  463 

damage  in  pasturing  vetch  designed  for  a  hay  or  seed 
crop. 

558.  Feeding  value.  —  Common  vetch  is  eagerly  eaten 
by  cows,  hogs  and  sheep.     Its  high  value  for  milk  produc- 
tion has  long  been  recognized  in  Europe.     At  the  Oregon 
Experiment  Station  cows  fed  vetch  hay  for  45  days  kept 
up  their  milk  flow  unimpaired.     In  a  feeding  test  with 
steers  fed  for  42  days  two  animals  fed  vetch  hay  gained, 
respectively,  3.07  and  2.07  pounds  a  day,  while  two  fed 
red-clover  hay  gained  2.56  and  2.16  pounds  a  day. 

559.  Rotations.  —  Common    vetch    is    nearly    always 
grown  in  rotation.     Continuous  cropping  to  vetch  for  seed 
production  usually  results  in  reduced  yields  after  two  or 
three  years,  according  to  Oregon  experience.     The  effects 
of  cutting  the  crop  for  hay  seem  to  be  far  less  marked,  but, 
nevertheless,  continuous  cropping  to  vetch  is  unnecessary 
and  undesirable. 

In  Oregon  and  Washington  common  vetch  is  usually 
grown  after  spring-sown  oats.  It  is  advantageously  used 
also  in  rotation  with  potatoes  or  corn. 

In  the  region  about  Augusta,  Georgia,  the  most  famous 
vetch-growing  section  in  the  South,  the  crop  is  mostly 
grown  in  rotation  with  Johnson-grass,  this  being  especially 
true  on  valley  lands  where  the  Johnson-grass  volunteers. 
Vetch,  commonly  mixed  with  oats  or  other  small  grain 
is  usually  planted  in  October  on  well-prepared  land  and 
harvested  by  the  middle  of  May.  After  the  vetch  crop  is 
removed,  the  Johnson-grass,  more  or  less  mixed  with  other 
grasses,  begins  to  grow  and  commonly  yields  two  hay 
cuttings  during  the  season. 

Where  Johnson-grass  does  not  permanently  occupy  the 
land  it  is  not  advisable  to  sow  it,  as  it  is  extremely  difficult 
to  eradicate.  In  this  case  various  summer  crops  can  be 


464        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

grown  in  the  rotation,  such  as  sorghum,  cowpeas,  sorghum 
and  cowpeas,  soybeans,  peanuts,  etc. 

Common  vetch  is  not  well  adapted  to  rotating  with 
cotton  unless  used  merely  as  a  green  manure.  The  vetch 
cannot  be  harvested  soon  enough  to  permit  the  early 
planting  of  cotton,  even  when  the  seed  is  sown  between 
the  rows  of  cotton. 

Common  vetch  is  somewhat  inclined  to  persist  when 
once  grown,  especially  where  the  winters  are  mild.  Ex- 
amples are  known  of  its  reseeding  itself  in  pastures  for 
five  years.  In  cultivated  fields  it  volunteers  readily, 
which  is  especially  objectionable  in  the  wheat  crop,  owing 
to  the  difficulty  of  separating  the  vetch  seed  from  the 
wheat.  There  is  no  danger  of  volunteer  vetch  unless  a 
seed  crop  is  grown  or  at  least  some  of  the  seed  allowed  to 
ripen.  In  such  cases,  to  avoid  volunteer  vetch,  the  best 
plan  is  to  follow  with  a  crop  of  vetch  and  oats  for  hay, 
pasturing  the  stubble,  so  that  no  seed  is  allowed  to  ripen. 
A  cultivated  crop  should  be  grown  the  next  season,  and 
then  the  land  can  be  planted  to  wheat  without  any  danger 
of  the  vetch  volunteering. 

560.  Fertilizers.  —  Information  concerning  the  best 
fertilizers  for  common  vetch  is  very  limited.  Barnyard 
manure  is  nearly  always  beneficial,  and  dairy  farmers 
especially  find  it  profitable  to  use  on  vetch  fields. 

In  western  Oregon,  it  is  now  a  common  practice  to  apply 
gypsum,  or  land  plaster,  and  special  machines  are  often 
used  to  apply  it.  It  is  commonly  applied  at  the  rate  of 
75  to  150  pounds  to  the  acre.  At  the  Oregon  Experiment 
Station,  100  pounds  of  gypsum  to  the  acre  increased  the 
yield  from  7394  to  9031  pounds  of  hay  to  the  acre. 

In  the  South,  a  fertilizer  containing  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash  is  often  used,  a  common  rate  of  application  being 


VETCHES  AND    VETCH-LIKE  PLANTS  465 

200  pounds  of  acid  phosphate  and  100  pounds  of  muriate 
of  potash  to  the  acre. 

561.  Lime.  — Vetches,  like  lupines,  are  injured  by  large 
applications  of  lime,  but   are  not  so  sensitive  to  small 
amounts.     Ulbricht    in     Germany    found    that    in    pot 
experiments  the  application  of  lime  diminished  the  ability 
of  the  plant  to  assimilate  phosphorus  and  nitrogen,  but 
not  potash. 

Field  experiments  have  given  mixed  results,  but  in  gen- 
eral it  appears  clear  that  liming  is  not  advisable  for  vetches. 

562.  Silage.  —  Vetch  has  been  several  times  preserved 
as  silage  at  the  Oregon  Experiment  Station,  where  cattle 
preferred  it  to  that  made  of  red  clover.     Smith  reports 
that  it  is  also  used  for  silage  at  a  large  dairy  in  South 
Carolina  with  entire  satisfaction. 

563.  Seed-production.  —  Common   vetch    seed  is  pro- 
duced in  large  quantities  in  the  United  States  only  in  the 
Willamette  Valley,  Oregon.     The  methods  of  handling  the 
seed  crop  vary,  due   partly  to  difference  of    opinion  as 
to  the  best  method,  but  more  largely  to  the  machinery 
possessed  by  the  grower. 

It  is  the  general  practice  to  cut  vetch  for  seed  as  soon 
as  the  lower  pods  are  fully  ripe,  at  which  time  the  upper 
pods  will  be  fully  formed  and  the  plant  will  be  carrying 
a  maximum  quantity  of  seed.  Later  cutting  occasions 
more  shattering  of  seed,  while  earlier  cutting  results  in 
a  considerable  percentage  of  immature  seed.  In  a  few 
places,  where  but  little  seed  is  raised,  the  crop  is  cut  with 
an  ordinary  mowing  machine.  Two  men  with  pitchforks 
follow  the  mower  and  roll  the  vetch  back  from  the  uncut 
area  so  as  to  enable  the  machine  to  get  through  when 
cutting  the  next  swath.  Sometimes  the  first  swath  cut 
is  rolled  on  the  uncut  vetch,  and  when  the  succeeding  swath 

2H 


466        FOEAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIE   CULTURE 

is  cut,  the  two  are  rolled  back  out  of  the  way.  This  puts 
the  vetch  in  larger  swaths  than  the  first-mentioned 
method  and  also  somewhat  reduces  the  loss  from  shatter- 
ing. These  two  mower  and  pitchfork  methods  were  for- 
merly used  generally,  but  now  have  been  largely  super- 
seded by  other  methods. 

An  ordinary  grain  binder  is  used  by  some  growers,  es- 
pecially when  the  vetch  is  short  and  therefore  quite  erect 
or  when  it  is  grown  with  a  supporting  crop,  such  as  oats. 
When  thus  harvested,  the  crop  is  put  in  shocks  similar 
to  grain  shocks  and  allowed  to  remain  until  thrashed. 

The  most  common  way  of  harvesting  vetch  at  present 
is  to  use  an  ordinary  mower  with  a  swather  attachment. 
The  swather,  which  is  attached  to  and  behind  the  sickle 
bar,  rolls  the  vetch  in  a  swath  to  the  outside  and  leaves 
the  way  clear  to  cut  the  next  swath. 

Whatever  method  is  used  in  cutting,  the  vetch  is  put 
at  once  into  shocks  and  remains  till  thrashed.  The  most 
important  rule  in  the  harvesting  of  vetch  seed  is  to  handle 
the  crop  rapidly  and  as  little  as  possible  when  cut. 

Common  vetch  varies  considerably  in  the  yield  of  seed 
to  the  acre.  Five  bushels  is  considered  a  low  yield,  and 
20  to  25  bushel  yields  are  near  the  maximum.  The 
average  acre  yield  is  probably  from  10  to  12  bushels. 

564.  Seed.  — Common  vetch  seed  has  been  extensively 
grown  for  some  years  in  western  Oregon,  and  practically 
all  of  this  seed  has  been  marketed  on  the  Pacific  Coast. 
Were  it  not  for  high  freight  rates,  all  of  the  seed  required 
in  the  United  States  could  be  grown  in  this  section.  The 
price  paid  to  the  grower  has  varied  greatly,  the  maximum 
being  1J  cents  a  pound,  but  in  1909,  owing  to  extraordi- 
nary conditions,  he  realized  but  one-half  cent  a  pound,  at 
which  price  the  seed  crop  is  not  profitable, 


VETCHES  AND    VETCH-LIKE  PLANTS 


467 


Practically  all  of  the  common  vetch  seed  used  in  the 
Southern  States  is  from  Europe.  Its  wholesale  price  at 
European  ports  is  usually  from  2  to  2J  cents  a  pound  and 
the  freight  to  American  ports  is  about  one-quarter  of  a 
cent  a  pound.  The  prices  that  American  vetch  seed 
growers  obtain  is  practically  controlled  by  the  price  of 
European  seed. 

Common  vetch  seed  retains  its  vitality  well  for  about 
three  years,  after  which  it  rapidly  deteriorates.  Very 


FIG.  52.  — Seeds  of 
common  vetch  (Vicia 
sativd).  (Natural  size.) 


FIG.  53. —  Seed 
scar  of  common 
vetch.  (Enlarged.) 


FIG.  54.  Types  of 
mottling  of  seeds  of 
common  vetch  ;  a  and 
b,  from  light  and  dark 
seeds,  respectively. 
(Enlarged.) 


fresh  seed  of  common  vetch  does  not  germinate  well. 
A  large  proportion  of  the  seed  is  hard,  and  most  of  this 
probably  does  not  germinate  until  the  following  season. 
One  pound  contains  about  8000  seeds. 


HAIRY   VETCH    (Vitia 

565.  Hairy  vetch  is  also  known  as  sand  vetch,  Russian 
vetch,  Siberian  vetch,  and  villose  vetch.  In  the  United 
States  it  has  also  come  to  be  known  as  winter  vetch, 
a  term  used  in  Europe  wholly  for  a  winter  strain  of 
common  vetch.  It  is  a  winter  annual,  but  often  behaves 
as  a  biennial;  stems  slender,  sometimes  growing  to  a 


468         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 


length  of  12  feet,  but  on  account  of  the  weakness,  the  mass 
of  plants  seldom  exceeds  4  feet  in  height ;  herbage  hairy 
and  somewhat  silvery;  leaflets  narrow,  11  to  17;  flowers 
blue-violet,  rarely  white,  borne  on  a  long  stalk  in  dense 

one-sided  clusters  of 
about  30 ;  pods  pale 
colored,  smooth,  each 
containing  two  to 
eight  small,  globose, 
nearly  black  seeds. 

The  root  system  is 
richly  branched  and 
extends  deep  into  the 
soil.  At  the  Cornell 
station  plants  from 
seed  sown  July  10 
had  roots  by  Novem- 
ber 10  which  pene- 
trated 3  feet  8  inches 
in  tough  clay.  The 
young  plants  go 
largely  to  root  devel- 
opment, so  that  the 

FIG.  55.  — Hairy  vetch.  top    growth    is    slow 

at  first. 

At  the  Delaware  Experiment  Station  the  tops  were 
estimated  to  produce  3064  and  the  roots  600  pounds  dry 
weight  to  the  acre. 

566.  Botany.  —  Hairy  vetch  is  found  wild  in  Russia, 
Germany  and  Hungary,  in  which  countries  it  is  apt  to 
occur  as  a  weed  in  grain  fields.  It  was  cultivated  in  Eng- 
land in  1815,  in  Scotland  in  1833,  and  in  Germany  in  1857. 
Its  first  introduction  into  America  was  about  1847,  but 


VETCHES  AND    VETCH-LIKE  PLANTS  469 

it  obtained  little  prominence  until  1886,  when  it  was  again 
introduced  by  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  since  which 
time  it  has  become  more  and  more  appreciated. 

567.  Climatic  adaptations.  —  Hairy  vetch  is  naturally 
adapted  to  cool  temperate  climates,  under  which  condi- 
tions it  behaves  normally  as  a  winter  annual.     The  seeds 
ripen  from  July  to  September,  germinate  the  same  season, 
and   the   plant   reaches   maturity   the   next    season.     If 
planted  in  spring,  the  growth  made  is  not  nearly  so  large 
as   if   planted    in   fall.      In  the   Northern  States  spring 
plantings  may  produce  some  flowers  but  rarely  produce 
pods,  the  plants  living  over  the  winter  and  coming  to 
maturity  the  second  season.     In  the  Southern  States  fall 
plantings  are  necessary,  as  hairy  vetch  will  not  withstand 
the  heat  of  the  summer.     The  cold  resistance  of  the  plants 
is  very  marked,  hairy  vetch  rarely  winter-killing  in  any 
of  the  states  if  well  established  in  the  fall.     It  is  also 
markedly  drought  resistant,  much  more  so  than  common 
vetch. 

Perhaps  correlated  with  its  greater  hardiness  is  the 
fact  that  hairy  vetch  makes  much  less  growth  in  winter 
than  common  vetch  and  other  species.  On  this  account 
hairy  vetch  is  not  desirable  as  a  green-manure  crop  to  be 
plowed  under  in  early  spring. 

568.  Soil    preferences.  —  Hairy    vetch    prefers    sandy 
or  sandy  loam  soils,  especially  such  as  are  rich  in  lime. 
The  plant  will  succeed,  however,  in  a  great  variety  of  soils, 
doing  well  even  on  clays,  provided  they  are  well  drained, 
but   does   not   succeed   on   very   wet   soils.     It   is   quite 
resistant  to  alkali,  and  will  germinate  in  soils  too  alkaline 
for  most  legumes. 

569.  Rate  of  seeding.  —  Hairy  vetch  is  not  often  sown 
alone,  but  when  this  is  the  case,  the  common  American 


470 


FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 


practice  is  to  sow  40  to  60  pounds  to  the  acre.  No  exact 
American  experiments  have  been  conducted  to  ascertain 
the  most  satisfactory  rate  in  such  seedings.  In  Europe, 
the  seeding  rates,  according  to  Werner,  are  very  much 
higher,  120  to  200  pounds  to  the  acre  when  broadcast, 
120  to  160  pounds  when  drilled. 

On  account  of  the  weak  stems  of  hairy  vetch,  the  most 
common  practice  is  to  sow  it  with  a  supporting  crop, 
usually  one  of  the  small  grains  —  rye,  wheat,  oats  or 
barley.  In  such  mixtures  a  full  seeding  of  the  small 
grain  is  usual,  and  to  this  is  added  20  to  25  pounds  of 
hairy  vetch. 

At  the  Virginia  Experiment  Station  the  following 
results  were  secured  from  different  mixtures :  — 


PER  CENT 

YIELD  TO  AN  ACRE 

RATE  o 

F  SEEDING  TO  AN  ACRE 

OF  VETCH 
IN  GREEN 

CROP 

Green 
Crop 

Hay 

Tons 

Tons 

Vetch,  16  lb. 

—  Oats,  25  lb.       ... 

5.00 

2.52 

1.37 

Vetch,  16  lb. 

-  Oats,  37£  lb.     .     .     . 

4.57 

2.60 

1.57 

Vetch,  16  lb. 

—  Oats,  50    lb.     .     .     . 

2.00 

2.52 

1.47 

Vetch,  32  lb. 

-  Oats,  25    lb.     .     .     . 

9.03 

1.80 

.90 

Vetch,  32  lb. 

-  Oats,  37!  lb.     .     .     . 

4.94 

2.15 

1.25 

Vetch,  32  lb. 

-  Oats,  50    lb.     .     .     . 

1.86 

2.35 

1.45 

Vetch,  48  lb. 

-  Oats,  25    lb.     .     .     . 

12.68 

1.67 

.97 

Vetch,  48  lb. 

-  Oats,  37!  lb.     .     .     . 

5.35 

1.75 

1.00 

Vetch,  48  lb. 

—  Oats,  50    lb.     .     .     . 

1.76 

2.12 

1.25 

Vetch,    Olb. 

On  fa     ^O      1V» 

2.25 

1.32 

vJdtS,  OU      ID. 

570.  Time  of  seeding.  —  Hairy  vetch  succeeds  every- 
where best  if  planted  in  the  fall.  However,  in  regions  where 
soil  moisture  conditions  are  such  as  to  render  fall  planting 
unsatisfactory,  spring  plantings  often  give  good  results, 


VETCHES   AND    VETCH-LIKE  PLANTS  471 

especially  in  the  Northern  and  Western  States.  Spring 
seedings  are,  however,  wholly  unsatisfactory  where  the  sum- 
mer heat  is  great,  as  the  plants  quickly  succumb  under 
such  conditions.  The  soil  condition  at  the  time  of  seeding 
is  not  a  matter  of  vital  importance,  as  if  the  ground  is  too 
dry,  the  seeds  will  remain  a  long  time  without  germinat- 
ing, and  with  comparatively  little  moisture  the  seedlings 
become  well  established. 

Too  late  seedings  are  to  be  avoided.  At  the  Virginia 
Experiment  Station  mixed  seedings  of  hairy  vetch  32 
pounds  and  oats  50  pounds  to  an  acre  were  made  Sep- 
tember 15,  September  30,  October  15  and  October  30. 
The  resultant  hay  yields  were  respectively  4200,  4500,  134 
and  0  pounds  to  an  acre. 

571.  Depth    of    seeding.  —  The    seed    of    hairy    vetch 
germinates  very  much   like   that  of  the  field  pea;   that 
is,  the   cotyledons   remain  where  planted,  the   plumule 
becoming  much  elongated.     Largely  on  this  account,  hairy 
vetch  seed  may  be  sown  quite  deeply  without  any  injury 
to  the  stand.     Up  to   4  inches   in   depth,  no   loss  from 
deep  planting  occurs,  and  surface  sowings  are  satisfactory, 
provided  moisture   conditions   are   good.      Ordinarily,    a 
depth  of  1J  to  2  inches  is  to  be  recommended. 

572.  Inoculation.  —  Hairy  vetch  unless  inoculated  does 
not  succeed.     It  is  readily  inoculated  from  both  common 
vetch  and  narrow-leaved-vetch,  and   doubtless  by  other 
vetches.     According    to    Nobbe    the    pea    and    vetches 
readily  inoculate  each  other.     This  idea  prevails  where 
vetches  are  most  grown,  but  the  evidence  is  not  conclu- 
sive.    The  nodules  are  usually  lobed  and  often  in  globose 
clusters. 

573.  Uses   of   the    crop.  —  Hairy   vetch   may   be   fed 
either  as  hay,  pasturage  or  silage.     The  greater  part  of  the 


472         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 

crop  is  fed  as  hay.  Smith  reports  that  a  large  dairy  farm 
near  Columbia,  South  Carolina,  feeds  it  as  silage  with 
good  results.  As  a  pasture  crop  it  is  excellent  for  swine, 
sheep  and  cattle.  It  is  sometimes  pastured  for  a  period 
while  young,  and  then  permitted  to  grow  a  crop  of  hay  or 
seed.  This  has  the  advantage  of  making  the  second 
growth  smaller,  so  that  it  does  not  lodge,  which  is 
especially  desirable  in  seed-production.  If  the  crop  of 
hay  is  cut  rather  young,  the  aftermath  furnishes  good 
pasturage,  or  sometimes  a  second  crop  of  hay. 

574.  Pollination.  —  Hairy   vetch   is    much   visited    by 
bees,  both  honeybees  and  bumblebees.     The  structure 
of  the  flower  is  adapted  to  cross-pollination,  and  experi- 
ments in  bagging  the  flowers  to  prevent  visits  of  insects 
show  that  the  latter  are  necessary  for  the  formation  of  pods 
and  seeds. 

575.  Harvesting   for   hay.  —  Hairy  vetch   is   probably 
best  cut  for  hay  during  the  time  that  the  first  pods  are 
full  grown,  but  not  filled  out,  but  it  is  often  cut  when 
the  plants  are  in  full  bloom.     On  account  of  the  tangled 
mass  of  vines  which  hairy  vetch  makes,  especially  when 
grown  alone,  mowing  is  sometimes  difficult.     It  may  be 
cut  with  an  ordinary  mower,  but  a  swather  attachment  is 
desirable.     The  curing  is  difficult  on  account  of  the  ten- 
dency of  the  leaflets  to  dry  before  the  stems.     On  this 
account,  great  care  needs  to  be-taken  to  avoid  the  loss  of 
the  leaves.     Ordinarily  hairy  vetch  is  allowed  to  remain 
in  the  swath  for  one  day  and  then  shocked.     With  good 
weather,  complete  curing  can  be  obtained  in  from  five  to 
eight  days. 

Hay  of  hairy  vetch  is  palatable  and  as  a  rule  readily  eaten 
by  animals.  The  yield  of  hay  when  grown  alone  ranges 
from  3000  to  5000  pounds  or  more  to  an  acre.  The  acre 


VETCHES  AND    VETCH-LIKE  PLANTS  473 

yields  actually  reported  by  experiment  stations  are : 
Michigan,  4188 ;  Colorado,  7000  ;  Mississippi,  broadcast, 
3565,  drilled  in  30-inch  rows,  2774 ;  Alabama,  2540 ; 
Cornell,  6824;  Pennsylvania,  1785;  Idaho,  4600; 
Tennessee,  3200  to  6560. 

Other  stations  have  reported  the  yield  green  as  follows 
in  pounds  to  an  acre  :  New  Hampshire,  27,588  ;  Colorado, 
13,400 ;  California,  32,760  ;  Pennsylvania,  5250  ;  Ontario 
Agricultural  College,  20,400,  average  of  4  years ;  Massa- 
chusetts, 20,000. 

576.  Feeding  value.  —  Little  is  definitely  known  of  the 
value  of  hairy  vetch,  as  but  few  feeding  experiments  are 
reported.     Judged  from  chemical  analyses  alone  its  value 
would  apparently  be  the  highest  of  all  legumes. 

577.  Use  in  rotations.  — Hairy  vetch  is  well  adapted 
for  use  in  a  simple  rotation  with  a  summer  crop,  filling 
practically  the  same  place  in  this  respect  as  crimson  clover, 
but  hairy  vetch  is  adapted  to   a  much  wider  range  of 
climatic    conditions.     As    a  winter   crop,  it  can  well  be 
grown  in  rotation  with  such  summer  crops  as  sorghums, 
millets,  late-planted  corn,  cowpeas  and  soybeans.    In  some 
southern  states  it  is  commonly  grown  in  rotation  with 
Johnson-grass.     Johnson-grass  sod  is  plowed  in  the  fall, 
and   the   hairy   vetch   then   planted   usually   with   oats. 
The  oat  and  vetch  hay  can  then  be  cut  in  May,  and  fol- 
lowing this,  two  crops  of  Johnson-grass  hay  can  be  secured. 
A  fall  plowing  is  not  only  necessary  for  the  planting  of 
the  vetch  and  oats,  but  increases  greatly  the  yield  from 
the  Johnson-grass.     In  the  Northern  States    a  crop  of 
vetch  hay  can   be  cut   early  enough    to  grow  a  crop  of 
millet  hay  the  same  season. 

The  practice  of  planting  hairy  vetch  in  corn  at  the 
last  cultivation  is  increasing.  The  vetch  is  often  more 


474         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 

desirable  than  crimson  clover  from  the  fact  that  stands 
are  much  more  easily  obtained.  In  some  instances  mix- 
tures of  crimson  clover  and  hairy  vetch  are  being  sown, 
partly  because  the  mixture  is  a  desirable  one,  and  partly 
because  a  catch  of  vetch  is  often  obtained  when  crimson 
clover  fails. 

578.  Advantages   and   disadvantages.  —  The   principal 
advantages  of  hairy  vetch  are   its  winter  hardiness  and 
drought  resistance,  and  the  fact  that  satisfactory  crops, 
at  least  of  hay,  may  be  secured  on  nearly  all  types  of  soil. 
Its  disadvantages  are  the  fact  that  the  cost  of  seed  is 
usually  too  high,  costing  in  recent  years  from  10  to  15 
cents  a  pound,  and  the  difficulty  of  mowing  the  tangled 
and  often  lodged  mass  of  herbage.     The  problem  of  the 
cost  of  seed  can  easily  be  solved  by  most  farmers  by  grow- 
ing their  own  seed,  but  there  is  no  good  reason  why  the 
commercial  cost  of  seed  should  be  greater  than  7  cents  a 
pound.     In  feeding  value  and  in  effect  on  succeeding  crops 
hairy  vetch  is  comparable  to  other  annual  legumes.     An- 
other great  advantage  of  hairy  vetch  up  to  the  present 
day  is  that  it  is  almost  completely  free  from  any  serious 
insects    or   diseases.     Occasionally   fields    are    somewhat 
injured  by  mildew,  but  this  damage  is  rarely  important. 

579.  Growing  seed.  —  Seed  crops  of  hairy  vetch  can 
probably  be  grown  in  most  parts  of  the  United  States. 
When  grown  for  this  purpose,  it  is  rather  better  to  plant 
with  a  small  grain  and  to  seed  the  vetch  thinly.     Much 
more  vetch  seed  is  also  produced  on  poor  soil  than  on  rich 
soil.     Where  the  stand  of  vetch  in  rye  or  other  grain  is 
thin,  the  crop  is  harvested  as  easily  as  if  alone.     On  the 
other  hand,  if  the  vetch  is  too  thick,  the  grain  does  not 
cut  well  with  a  binder,  and  often  is  lodged  badly  on  account 
of  the  weight  of  the  vetch  plants.     Most  of  the  Russian 


PLATE  VI.  — HAIRY  VETCH  AND  RYE. 


VETCHES  AND    VETCH-LIKE  PLANTS  475 

seed  is  that  obtained  incidentally  from  vetch  occurring 
naturally  in  grain  fields.  When  grown  alone,  hairy  vetch 
should  be  harvested  for  seed  as  soon  as  the  first  pods  are 
ripe,  regardless  of  the  fact  that  flowering  takes  place 
over  a  considerable  period,  and  that  many  pods  are  green 
when  the  first  are  ripened. 

The  seeds  of  vetch  are  easily  separated  from  wheat  or 
rye  by  means  of  a  spiral  separator  especially  designed 
for  the  purpose.  For  local  use,  mixed  seed  of  hairy  vetch 
and  a  grain  is  sometimes  sold  as  harvested,  but  usually, 
in  such  combinations,  the  proportion  of  grain  to  vetch  seed 
is  too  large.  Some  farmers  do  not  cut  their  vetch  for  hay 
until  some  of  the  seed  has  ripened  and  shattered.  By 
this  means  a  volunteer  crop  can  be  obtained  year  after 
year.  The  quality  of  the  hay  is  injured,  however,  on 
account  of  late  cutting.  On  fields  of  hairy  vetch  har- 
vested for  seed  it  usually  happens  that  sufficient  seed 
shatters  to  give  a  perfect  stand. 

The  yields  of  seed  vary  greatly  according  to  season. 
At  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College  the  maximum  yield 
obtained  was  21.2  bushels  to  an  acre,  but  the  average  of 
9  years  was  only  6.8  bushels.  Yields  recorded  by  experi- 
ment stations  in  bushels  to  an  acre  are :  Washington,  14.7 
and  5.5 ;  South  Dakota,  6.5 ;  Colorado,  7.7 ;  Wisconsin, 
2.5;  Mississippi,  5.57,  5.85,  7.4  and  10;  Oregon,  10 
bushels  vetch  and  30  bushels  oats;  Connecticut,  12 
bushels  vetch  and  15  bushels  rye. 

580.  Sources  of  seed.  —  Most  of  the  seed  used  in  the 
United  States  at  the  present  time  is  obtained  from  Russia 
and  eastern  Germany.  Larger  quantities  of  it,  however, 
are  being  grown  in  the  United  States  each  year,  and 
undoubtedly  sufficient  for  domestic  use  will  soon  be  home- 
grown seed.  European  seed  is  frequently  deficient  in 


476         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 


• 


germination.  Shamel  reports  experiments  from  Connecti- 
cut which  seem  to  indicate  that  Connecticut-grown 
seed  is  considerably  hardier  than  Russian  seed.  The 
experience  at  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College  shows 
clearly  that  acclimatized  seed  gives  better  results.  The 
seed  yield  alone  averaged  2.5  bushels  more  to  an  acre 
during  7  years  from  the  acclimatized  strain. 

581.  Seeds.  —  The  seeds  of  hairy  vetch   are  globose. 
Most  of  them  appear  black,  but  really  are  black  marbled 
on  an  olive   ground 
color.     Rarely  olive- 
colored     seeds     are 
found.     When  fresh, 
the  surface   appears 
velvety.     They  vary 
9  ^^®  0  ®    greatly  in  size,   but 
0  W  @  one    pOun(i     of     an 

FIG.  56.  —  Seeds  of  average  sample  con- 
1T5Vet/£    >Vici(\  tains  from  70,000  to 

villosa).      (Natural 

size.)  80,000  seeds.     Fresh 

seeds  germinate  well, 
usually  over  90  per  cent.  Seeds  a  year  old  are  charac- 
terized by  a  high  percentage,  10  per  cent  to  40  per 
cent,  of  hard  seeds  which  lie  in  the  ground  a  long  time 
without  germinating.  According  to  Hillman,  the  pro- 
portion of  hard  seeds  diminishes  in  seeds  older  than  one 
year. 

Other  vetch  seeds,  especially  small  seeds  of  common 
vetch,  are  used  to  adulterate  hairy  vetch.  These  can 
usually  be  detected  by  their  grayish  or  mottled  color. 
Hillman  points  out  that  hairy  vetch  seeds  can  be  distin- 
guished from  any  other  vetch  seed  used  as  an  adulterant 
by  the  shape  of  the  hilum  or  seed  scar.  In  hairy  vetch 


FIG.  57.  —  Seed 
scar  of  hairy  vetch  ; 
a  and  b,  forms  show- 
ing the  white,  central 
slit  of  some  scars. 
(Enlarged.) 


VETCHES  AND    VETCH-LIKE  PLANTS  477 

this  is  narrowly  elliptical  in  outline,  almost  equally  broad 
at  each  end,  while  in  other  vetches  it  is  lanceolate  or  wedge- 
shaped.  Brown  finds  that  the  germ  of  hairy  vetch  seed 
is  paler  than  other  vetches  used  as  adulterants.  If  any 
of  the  seeds  when  crushed  disclose  colors  varying  from 
dark  fawn  to  reddish-orange,  they  are  not  hairy  vetch. 

OTHER  VETCHES 

582.  Narrow-leaved  vetch  (Vicia  angustifolia)  is  very 
nearly  related  to  common  vetch,  but  is  distinguished  by 
its  narrower  leaflets,  smaller  flowers,  black  pods  and  round, 
smaller  seeds.     It  is  much  better  adapted  to  the  conditions 
of  the  eastern  United  States  than  common  vetch,  as  it  has 
become    naturalized    and    thoroughly    established    from 
Georgia  to  Pennsylvania,  and  occurs  even  as  far  north  as 
Nova   Scotia.     In   Georgia   it   is   highly   appreciated   in 
the  vetch-growing  sections  and  sometimes  makes  up  a 
considerable    portion    of    the    hay.     It    maintains    itself 
from  year  to  year,  as  some  seeds  mature  before  common 
vetch  is  ready  to  cut  for  hay.     On  pastures  it  remains  as 
a   permanent   element   and   is   greatly  valued.     Seed   is 
sometimes  offered  for  sale,  but  is  not  available  in  quan- 
tity. 

583.  Purple  vetch  (Vicia  atropurpurea)  is  a  native  of 
Europe  cultivated  to  a  slight  extent  in  England,  Germany, 
and  France.     It  is  an  annual  species  with  handsome  red- 
purple  flowers.     Its  adaptations  are  essentially  those  of 
common  vetch. 

It  has  proved  to  be  very  well  adapted  to  western  Oregon, 
where  it  has  produced  as  good  hay  crops  and  better  seed 
crops  than  common  vetch.  In  California  it  has  proven 
very  satisfactory  as  a  green-manure  crop  in  citrus  orchards, 
as  it  makes  a  heavy  growth  in  the  cool  weather  of  winter. 


478        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

In  the  Southern  States  it  has  also  succeeded  well,  and  with 
seed  as  cheap  as  common  vetch  will  probably  come  into 
large  use. 

584.  Woolly-pod  vetch  ( Vicia  dasycarpa)  is  native  over 
much  of  Europe.     It  is  very  similar  to  hairy  vetch  in  every 
respect,  but  the  leaves  are  less  pubescent,  the  fragrant 
flowers  are  purple,  and  the  plant  2  to  3  weeks  earlier. 
Agriculturally  it  can  be  used  in  exactly  the  same  way  as 
hairy  vetch,  but  it  makes  better  growth  in  cool  weather, 
so  that  when  mature  the  total  yield  is  scarcely  inferior. 

585.  Scarlet  vetch  ( Vicia  fulgens)  is  an  annual,  native 
to  the  Mediterranean  region.     It  is  cultivated  to  a  small 
extent  in  France.     Scarlet  vetch  is  the  most  erect  growing 
of   the    annual   slender-stemmed  vetches.     It  is  charac- 
terized by  its  narrow  leaflets  and  beautiful  scarlet  flowers 
in  one-sided  clusters.     It  is  even  less  hardy  than  common 
vetch,  but  usually  withstands  the  winters    of  the  Pacific 
coast  and  the  cotton  states.     Only  rarely  does  it  produce 
seed  in  large  quantities,  and  the  pods  shatter  readily,  so 
that  the  seed  is  comparatively  expensive.     The  plant  is 
quite  drought  resistant,  and  from  spring  sowings  has  suc- 
ceeded better  in  the  semi-arid  regions  than  any  other  vetch 
except  the  purple.     It  is  very  doubtful  whether  the  seed 
of  this  vetch  will  ever  be  cheap  enough  to  enable  it  to  com- 
pete with  other  varieties. 

586.  Ervil  or  black  bitter  vetch  (Vicia  ervilia)  was  culti- 
vated for  fodder  by  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  and 
seeds  have  been  found  in  the  ruins  of  ancient  Troy.     It 
still  is  a  crop  of  some  importance  in  Asiatic  Turkey.     The 
plant  is  apparently  native  to  the  region  about  the  eastern 
end  of  the  Mediterranean. 

Unlike  most  other  vetches,  it  is  upright  in  habit,  and 
without  tendrils.     The  plants  grow  to  a  height  of  2  to  2-| 


VETCHES  AND   VETCH-LIKE  PLANTS  479 

feet.  The  seed  habits  are  excellent,  the  plant  producing 
numerous  pods  which  shatter  but  little.  Seed  is  grown 
so  cheaply  that  it  has  been  imported  into  England  from 
Syria  for  stock  feed. 

The  seeds,  however,  are  said,  like  those  of  species  of 
Lathyrus  and  Coronilla,  to  affect  the  nervous  system  and 
finally  cause  paralysis. 

Ervil  has  succeeded  admirably  under  California  condi- 
tions when  sown  in  the  fall.  The  crop  makes  a  good 
growth  through  the  winter  and  for  this  reason  is  well 
adapted  for  use  as  a  cover  crop  in  orchards.  To  secure  a 
good  stand  about  70  pounds  of  seed  to  an  acre  is  needed. 

At  the  Puyallup,  Washington  Station,  five  plots  of  ervil 
were  planted  in  spring  on  clay  uplands  and  yielded  re- 
spectively 7.5,  21.5,  and  37.7  bushels  seed  to  an  acre; 
one  plot  on  alluvial  clay  yielded  36.6  bushels ;  and  one 
on  sandy  loam  13.3  bushels  to  an  acre. 

587.  Narbonne  vetch  ( Vicia  narbonnensis)  is  native  to 
the  Mediterranean  region   of   Europe,  Asia  and  Africa. 
In  general  appearance  it  is  intermediate  between  common 
vetch  and  the  horse  bean,  having  tendrils  like  the  former 
but  resembling  the  latter  in  its  thick  foliage,  which  turns 
black  in  drying.     By  some  writers  it  has  been  considered 
the  wild  original  of  the  horse  bean,  but  this  view  is  not  now 
held. 

Its  culture  and  requirements  are  essentially  the  same 
as  those  of  common  vetch,  excepting  that  it  requires  more 
warmth  for  its  best  growth.  It  is  cultivated  for  forage  to 
a  small  extent  in  southern  Europe,  but  under  American 
conditions  has  found  no  place. 

588.  The  horse  bean  (Vicia  f aba)  in  some  of  its  varieties 
at  least,  is  also  known  as  tick  bean,  field  bean,  pigeon 
bean,  broad  bean,  and  Windsor  bean.     The  last  two  names 


480        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR    CULTURE 

refer  primarily  to  the  large-seeded  varieties  used  as  human 
food,  and  the  first  four  names  to  the  smaller-seeded  sorts 
used  for  animals.  The  culture  of  the  horse  bean  ante- 
dates history,  the  seeds  having  been  found  in  several 
places  in  remains  of  the  stone  age,  as  well  as  in  ancient 
Egypt.  What  is  apparently  the  wild  original  has  been 
found  in  Algeria  by  Schweinfurth  and  by  Trabut.  The 
plant  was  abundantly  cultivated  in  ancient  Greece  and 
other  Mediterranean  countries,  and  is  important  in 
Europe  to-day,  as  well  as  in  China,  India,  and  Egypt. 
In  warm  countries  it  is  grown  as  a  winter  crop,  and  in 
very  cool  regions  as  a  summer  crop. 

The  plant  is  a  stout,  erect  annual,  growing  to  a  height 
of  2J  to  4|  feet ;  leaves  pinnate  with  2  or  3  pairs  of  leaflets, 
but  no  tendrils ;  flowers  in  short,  axillary  clusters  of  2 
to  4 ;  corolla  white  and  black.  The  stem  is  usually 
simple,  but  sometimes  branched  at  the  base. 

The  horse  bean  is  adapted  to  a  cool  growing  season, 
and  will  not  endure  heat.  It  is  not  particular  in  its  soil  re- 
quirements, except  that  it  be  well  drained  and  rich  in  humus. 

The  cultivated  varieties  are  very  numerous,  probably 
over  100  occurring  in  different  parts  of  the  world.  They 
are  distinguished  mainly  by  the  size,  shape,  and  color 
of  the  seed.  Most  of  them  are  adapted  to  spring  planting, 
but  a  few  varieties  may  be  planted  in  fall  in  England. 

In  England  and  Germany  they  are  mostly  planted  in 
early  spring.  The  seed  is  sown  broadcast,  or  preferably 
drill-ed,  in  rows  8  to  14  inches  wide.  The  amount  of  seed 
to  an  acre  depends  on  the  size  of  the  seed,  which  varies 
according  to  variety.  With  the  common  horse  bean  about 
4  bushels  to  an  acre  is  used,  a  bushel  weighing  about  56 
pounds. 

For  green  feed  the  plants  are  cut  when  in  bloom;  for 


VETCHES  AND    VETCH-LIKE  PLANTS  481 

seed,  when  the  lower  pods  turn  black.     The  shocks  are 
allowed  to  cure  about  two  weeks  before  thrashing. 

Horse  beans  have  found  but  a  small  place  in  American 
agriculture.  As  a  winter  crop  they  succeed  well  in  Cali- 
fornia, where  they  are  grown  to  some  extent  as  a  vegetable, 
and  have  been  used  as  a  green-manure  crop.  On  the  north 
Pacific  Coast,  where  climatic  conditions  are  much  like 
those  of  Europe,  they  also  succeed  well.  The  hardy 
winter  varieties  will  usually  survive  the  winter  if  planted 
in  fall  as  far  north  as  the  District  of  Columbia.  Farther 
south  they  have,  in  some  seasons  at  least,  given  splendid 
results  when  thus  planted,  and  would  probably  succeed 
generally.  If  planted  in  the  spring,  they  suffer  severely 
from  hot  summer  weather,  the  herbage  turning  black. 
Even  as  far  north  as  Ontario  they  suffer  from  heat,  and 
after  15  years'  experimental  work  at  the  Ontario  Agricul- 
tural College,  the  conclusion  is  reached  that  the  crop  is  not 
to  be  recommended,  as  the  results  are  usually  unsatis- 
factory. The  best  yield  of  seed,  29  bushels  to  an  acre, 
was  secured  in  an  unusually  cool  season. 

In  Germany,  the  yield  of  green  feed  to  an  acre  ranges 
from  14,000  to  20,000  pounds,  and  of  seed  from  25  to  50 
bushels.  When  grown  for  green  feed,  horse  beans  are 
often  mixed  with  peas  or  common  vetch. 

589.  Bird  or  tufted  vetch  (Vicia  cracca)  is  a  perennial 
species  native  to  Eurasia,  also  occurring  naturally  in 
North  America  from  Newfoundland  to  New  Jersey,  west 
to  Minnesota  and  perhaps  to  Washington.  Bird  vetch 
closely  resembles  hairy  vetch,  but  the  herbage  is  less 
pubescent.  In  Europe  bird  vetch  occurs  as  a  weed  in 
grain  fields,  and  the  commercial  seed  is  that  separated 
from  the  grain.  It  is  commonly  mixed  with  that  of 
Vicia  hirsuta  and  Vicia  tetrasperma. 
2i 


482         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 

The  adaptations  and  culture  of  the  plant  are  essentially 
the  same  as  those  of  hairy  vetch.  At  the  Ontario  Agri- 
cultural College  it  produced  yields  of  green  forage  during 
2  years  of  2.2  and  3.9  tons  to  an  acre,  somewhat  more 
than  that  produced  by  common  vetch,  but  less  than 
that  of  hairy  vetch. 

The  native  form  is  sometimes  abundant  in  moist  mead- 
ows in  New  England,  but  as  it  turns  black  in  curing,  is 
not  always  welcomed. 

590.  The  Tangier  pea  (Lathyrus  tingitanus)  is  an  annual 
legume,  native  to  North  Africa,  and  similar  in  a  general 
way  to  the  garden  sweet  pea,  but  much  more  vigorous  in 
growth.  The  flowers  are  deep  red  and  smaller  than  the 
sweet  pea.  As  an  ornamental  the  Tangier  pea  has  long 
been  known.  As  a  forage  crop  it  was  first  grown  and 
recommended  by  Trabut  in  Algeria. 

It  is  adapted  to  about  the  same  conditions  as  the  sweet 
pea.  In  the  North  it  must  be  planted  in  the  spring ;  in 
the  South  and  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  in  the  fall.  In  com- 
parison with  the  vetches  and  other  annual  legumes  used 
as  winter  green-manure  crops  in  California,  the  Tangier 
pea  has  proved  to  be  much  more  vigorous  in  growth  and 
to  choke  out  weeds  perfectly.  At  the  California  Experi- 
ment Station  a  yield  of  9  tons  of  hay  to  an  acre  in  a 
single  cutting  has  been  recorded.  Ordinarily,  however,  it 
will  not  yield  nearly  so  large  a  crop  as  this. 

Both  in  the  Southern  States  and  in  western  Oregon  the 
Tangier  pea  has  given  very  promising  results. 

The  seed  weighs  60  pounds  to  the  bushel  and  is  nearly 
as  large  as  that  of  the  field  pea,  though  somewhat 
flattened.  If  broadcasted,  about  45  pounds  of  seed  to  an 
acre  is  necessary ;  if  drilled,  30  pounds  is  sufficient ;  very 
excellent  stands  have  been  secured  by  using  only  12  pounds 


VETCHES  AND    VETCH-LIKE  PLANTS 


483 


to  the  acre.  On  account  of  the  enormous  mass  of  rather 
stout  stems  which  the  Tangier  pea  produces,  it  is  not 
advisable  to  plant 
with  oats  or  barley. 
If,  however,  this  is 
done,  the  amount  of 
the  seed  should  be 
reduced  one-half. 

In  regard  to  the 
feed  value  of  the 
Tangier  pea  there 
are  but  few  data 
available.  However, 
it  is  both  palatable 
and  nutritious,  and 
no  deleterious  effects 
have  been  noted 
either  in  Algeria  or 
in  this  country. 

Seed  is  produced 
well  both  in  western 
Oregon  and  in  Cali- 
fornia, but  the  pods 
shatter  easily.  The 
principal  difficulty  is 
the  production  of 
seed  cheaply  enough 
so  that  the  crop  can 
be  used  in  competition  with  other  vetches,  and  its  final 
place  in  American  agriculture  will  depend  largely  on  this. 

At  the  Puyallup,  Washington,  Station,  Tangier  peas 
gave  in  a  small  plot  a  yield  of  72.4  bushels  of  seed  to 
an  acre. 


FIG.  58.  —  Tangier  pea. 


484        FOEAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

As  a  spring-sown  crop  Tangier  peas  produced  2816 
pounds  hay  to  an  acre  at  Dickinson,  North  Dakota,  when 
field  peas  produced  but  1780  pounds. 

591.  Flat-podded  vetchling  (Lathyrus  deem)  is  an  annual, 
native  to  the  Mediterranean  region,  at  least  in  Europe. 
To  a  small  extent  it  is  cultivated  as  fodder  in  Spain,  France, 
and  Italy.     Care  must  be  taken  in  feeding,  however,  as 
the    seeds,    if    eaten    in    quantity,    have    a    dangerous 
effect. 

The  stems  are  weak;  the  leaves  pale  green  with  one 
pair  of  leaflets,  the  upper  with  a  simple  tendril ;  flowers 
red. 

The  flat-podded  vetchling  has  made  fine  growth  during 
several  years  at  Chico,  California,  when  planted  in  fall. 
It  seems  to  possess  no  character,  however,  in  which  it  is 
superior  to  common  vetch,  and  it  is  not  likely  to  be  much 
grown.  Planted  at  Arlington  Farm,  Virginia,  in  spring 
the  plants  languish  with  the  summer  heat  and  die 
without  blooming. 

592.  Ochrus  (Lathyrus  ochrus)  is  an  annual,  native  to 
the  Mediterranean  region,  where  it  is  cultivated  to  a  slight 
extent  for  fodder,  especially  on  the  island  of  Crete  and  in 
Catalonia,  Spain.     From  all  other  cultivated  species  of 
Lathyrus  it  is  easily  distinguished  by  the  foliage,  which 
consists  mainly  of  the  broadened  petioles,  only  the  upper 
leaves  having  1  or  2  pairs  of  leaflets  and  a  branched  tendril. 
The  solitary  flowers  are  bright  yellow. 

Ochrus  has  grown  very  well  in  California  when  planted 
in  fall.  At  Jackson,  California,  a  small  plot  yielded  at 
the  rate  of  30,855  pounds  green  weight  to  an  acre.  In 
plats  at  Chico,  California,  its  behavior  has  not  been 
consistent,  some  years  being  very  good,  other  years  very 
poor.  At  Puyallup,  Washington,  the  average  yield  of 


VETCHES  AND    VETCH-LIKE  PLANTS 


485 


seed  from  3  plats  was  8.7  bushels  to  an  acre.  The  plant 
possesses  no  visible  advantage  over  common  vetch,  and 
there  is  no  apparent  reason  why  it  should  be  recommended. 

593.  Comparison  of  vetch  species.  —  On  the  Pacific 
Coast  all  the  vetch  species  are  admirably  adapted  and  in 
California  a  number  of  them  have  been  tested  as  green- 
manure  crops.  In  the  data  shown  in  the  following  table, 
it  will  be  observed  that  the  yield  of  hairy  vetch  is  small 
if  plowed  under  early,  but  if  left  to  reach  its  maximum 
growth  exceeds  the  other  species.  To  a  less  degree 
common  vetch  shows  the  same  lack  of  ability  to  grow  in 
cool  winter  weather. 

There  is  little  to  choose  between  the  vetches  in  habit 
and  feeding  quality  where  they  all  succeed  well.  On  this 
account  preference  is  given  mainly  to  those  which  have 
good  seeding  habits,  and  consequently  cheaper  seed :  - 


YIELDS  TO  AN  ACRE  OF  DIFFERENT  SPECIES  OF  VETCHES  IN 
CALIFORNIA 


SPECIES 

CHICO 

CHICO 

SOUTHERN 
CALIFORNIA 
SUBSTATION 

BERKELEY 

Green  Weight 
March  18,  1908 

Green  Weight 
March  16,  1909 

Green  Weight 
June  4,  1909 

Green 
Weight 

Ervil    .... 
Purple  vetch 
Woolly-pod 
vetch    . 
Hairy  vetch 
Common  vetch 
Scarlet  vetch     . 
Narbonne  vetch 
Horse  bean 
Tangier  pea 

Pounds 

27,646 
19,826 

18,876 
11,616 
7,623 

Pounds 

21,017 
27,469 

25,074 
5,880 
2,831 

Pounds 

Pounds 

17,240 

44,255 
35,921 

32,670 
25,410 
18,150 
25,400 

51,152 

10,890 
13,794 

21,130 
12,840 

68,970 
34,485 

486        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 


OTHER  LEGUMES 

594.  Fenugreek  ( Trigonella  fcenum-grcecum)  is  a  native 
of  the  Mediterranean  region  of  Europe,  but  extends  to 
central  Asia  and  north  Africa.  As  a  cultivated  crop  it 
is  mainly  grown  in  Turkey  and  India,  and  harvested  prin- 
cipally for  the  seeds,  but  in  India  the  very  young  plants 
are  also  used  as  a  condiment.  The  seeds  have  a  peculiar 
characteristic  odor  and  possess  definite  medicinal  qualities. 
Large  quantities  are  imported  into  the  United  States  to 
use  in  "  condition  powders  "  for  horses. 

Fenugreek  is  an  erect  plant  with  usually  several  stems 
from  the  same  root.  The  leaves  are  clover-like,  but  the 
pods  are  long  and  pointed.  The  plant  is  remarkably  free 
from  insect  enemies  and  diseases. 

Fenugreek  has  thus  far  been  found  a  useful  plant  in  the 
United  States  only  in  California,  where  in  Ventura  and 
Orange  counties  it  is  now  largely  used  as  an  orchard  green- 
manure  crop.  The  recognition  of  its  value  for  this 
purpose  dates  back  to  1903,  when  it  was  first  distributed 
by  the  California  Experiment  Station.  It  is  best  adapted 
to  the  region  near  the  seacoast,  but  has  succeeded  in  all 
the  citrus  districts  of  the  state. 

The  yield  of  green  matter  to  an  acre  compares  favorably 
with  other  legumes  used  for  the  purpose  and  the  seed  cost 
for  an  acre  is  very  low.  At  Santa  Paula,  California,  the 
green  weight  of  fenugreek  to  an  acre  was  estimated  to  be 
11,745  pounds  and  common  vetch  19,140  pounds;  in  the 
San  Joaquin  valley  a  yield  of  15,518  pounds  green  fenu- 
greek to  an  acre  is  recorded. 

Fenugreek  prefers  loam  soils  but  is  not  very  exacting. 
In  California  the  seed  is  sown  either  broadcast  or  drilled, 
using  30  pounds  to  the  acre,  if  for  a  green-manure  crop. 


VETCHES  ANT)    VETCH-LIKE  PLANTS  487 

The  usual  time  for  seeding  is  September  in  southern  Cali- 
fornia and  October  in  northern  California. 

For  seed  production  only  15  or  20  pounds  to  an  acre 
is  sown.  The  crop  is  cut  with  a  mower  when  the  pods  are 
mature,  cured  in  windrows,  and  thrashed  with  a  grain 
thrasher.  Some  care  is  necessary  in  curing  to  avoid  loss 
by  shattering.  The  average  yield  of  seed  to  an  acre  in  the 
best  seed  district  is  1500  pounds.  The  seed  weighs  60 
pounds  to  the  bushel. 

595.  Lupines  (Lupinus  spp.). —  Several  annual  species 
of  lupine  are  much  cultivated  in  southern  and  central 
Europe  both  as  forage  and  green  manure.  The  important 
species  are  white  lupine  (Lupinus  albus),  Egyptian  lupine 
(L.  termis),  yellow  lupine  (L.  luteus),  and  blue  lupine 
(L.  angustifolius). 

All  of  these  species  are  adapted  to  a  cool  growing 
season,  and  succeed  best  on  sandy  loams.  They  will  not 
endure  much  lime  in  the  soil  nor  an  undrained  subsoil. 
Light  frosts  are  not  injurious  to  the  young  seedlings. 

Lupines  are  planted  in  early  spring  in  northern  coun- 
tries, and  in  fall  in  regions  where  only  light  frosts  occur. 
They  are  utilized  as  pasturage,  green  feed,  or  hay  for  sheep 
and  goats,  but  other  animals  will  not  eat  them  on  account 
of  their  bitter  taste.  The  bitter  substances  can  be  re- 
moved from  the  hay  by  soaking  in  cold  water,  and  when 
thus  treated  the  hay  is  eaten  by  cows  and  horses.  The 
seeds  may  be  treated  by  boiling  one  hour  and  then 
washing  24  hours  in  running  water.  This  treatment 
removes  the  bitter  substances,  but  results  in  a  loss  of 
about  one-sixth  of  the  dry  matter.  The  disembittered 
seeds  furnish  a  rich  proteid  feed. 

Lupines  have  often  been  tried  in  America  but  rarely 
make  satisfactory  growth.  This  may  be  partly  due  to 


488        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR    CULTURE 

lack  of  inoculation,  but  primarily  because  they  cannot 
well  endure  the  hot  summer  weather  in  the  eastern  United 
States. 

Lupines  have  grown  well  in  California  when  planted 
in  the  fall,  and  fair  results  have  been  obtained  in  Michigan, 
Massachusetts,  Kentucky  and  Virginia  when  planted  in 
the  spring.  At  the  California  Foothill  Station  white 
lupines  sown  at  the  rate  of  100,  150  and  200  pounds  to 
an  acre  gave  green  yields  of  1739,  2193  and  3819  pounds 
to  an  acre  respectively.  Ninety-five  pounds  of  seed  to 
an  acre  drilled  gave  a  green  yield  of  3348  pounds  to 
an  acre,  as  compared  to  3819  pounds  obtained  by  broad- 
casting at  the  rate  of  200  pounds  to  an  acre.  A  sowing 
made  October  22  yielded  4846  pounds  of  green  herbage 
to  an  acre,  much  more  than  that  from  earlier  and  later 
seedings. 

These  yields  are  small  compared  with  those  secured  in 
Europe.  The  average  yield  in  Germany  is  given  as  3600 
pounds  hay  to  an  acre.  Maximum  yields  in  favorable 
seasons  may  reach  9000  pounds  to  an  acre. 

596.  Serradella  (Ornithopus  sativus)  is  an  annual  legume 
native  to  the  Spanish  Peninsula  and  Morocco.  It  is  cul- 
tivated for  forage  and  green  manure  in  Portugal,  Spain, 
France,  and  Germany,  in  the  last  country  beginning  with 
1842.  In  America  it  has  thus  far  found  no  place.  It  has 
been  tested  in  a  small  way  at  most  of  the  experiment 
stations,  but  only  at  one  has  it  been  deemed  worthy  of 
recommendation.  At  the  Massachusetts  Experiment 
Station  it  yielded  10  to  12  tons  green  weight  to  an  acre, 
containing  19  to  20  per  cent  water.  It  was  there  consid- 
ered better  than  oats  and  vetch  or  cowpeas,  and  nearly 
as  good  as  soybeans.  At  Guelph,  Ontario,  the  yield  of 
green  forage  was  only  4.7  tons  to  an  acre. 


VETCHES  AND    VETCH-LIKE  PLANTS  489 

Serradella  is  a  much-branched,  slender-stemmed  plant 
with  pinnate  leaves,  a  stout  tap  root,  umbeled  rose- 
colored  flowers,  and  pods  which  break  into  joints,  these 
constituting  the  commercial  seed.  Each  joint  is  reticu- 
lated on  the  outside,  but  about  one-fifth  of  these  are 
empty.  Well-grown  plants  of  serradella  reach  a  height 
of  2  feet. 

Serradella  is  adapted  primarily  to  moist  sandy  soils 
and  a  cool  growing  season.  Unlike  its  effect  on  many 
other  legumes,  lime  is  not  helpful  but  often  deleterious 
to  its  growth.  The  young  plants  will  withstand  several 
degrees  of  frost  in  the  spring,  but  not  so  much  when  in 
bloom. 

In  Europe  serradella  is  sown  in  early  spring,  either  alone 
on  fall-sown  rye  or  with  spring-sown  oats,  using  40  to  60 
pounds  of  seed  to  an  acre.  The  seedlings  grow  very  slowly 
at  first,  except  the  root.  If  sown  alone,  it  may  be  cut  for 
green  feed  by  July.  The  first  cutting  of  hay  is  made  when 
the  blooming  has  nearly  ceased,  and  a  second  cutting  can 
be  made  in  the  fall.  The  hay  must  be  cured  with  great 
care,  as  the  leaflets  fall  off  easily.  The  average  yield  of 
hay  in  Germany  is  said  by  Werner  to  be  2500  to  5000 
pounds  to  an  acre. 

Seed  is  harvested  from  the  second  cutting,  and  the 
yields  are  said  to  range  from  350  to  1200  pounds  to 
an  acre. 

Serradella  may  be  found  to  be  useful  on  moist  sandy 
lands  in  the  northernmost  states  and  in  Canada,  and  per- 
haps as  a  fall-sown  crop  in  the  extreme  south.  Many  of 
the  failures  with  this  plant  have  doubtless  been  due  to 
lack  of  inoculation. 

597.  Square-pod  pea  (Lotus  tetragonolobus)  is  native 
to  the  countries  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean,  where 


490        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

it  has  long  been  cultivated  for  the  pods  and  seeds,  which 
are  used  as  human  food.  It  is  also  grown  to  a  small 
extent  in  England. 

The  plant  is  an  annual  with  weak  stems  12  to  18  inches 
long ;  leaves  trifoliolate ;  flowers  handsome,  scarlet ; 
pods  dark  colored  with  wings  as  broad  as  the  body ; 
seeds  large,  ovate,  brownish. 

The  square-pod  pea  requires  much  the  same  conditions 
as  the  field  pea,  but  is  not  so  productive  either  of  herbage 
or  of  seed. 

At  the  California  Experiment  Station  this  pea  produced 
on  small  plots  yields  of  green  herbage  at  the  rates  of  24  and 
26  tons  to  an  acre. 


CHAPTER   XXI 
COWPEAS 

THE  cowpea  is  really  not  a  pea  at  all  but  a  bean,  being 
indeed  the  one  most  commonly  cultivated  for  human 
food  in  the  Old  World  before  the  discovery  of  America. 
Its  ease  of  culture  and  productivity  have  combined  to 
make  it  popular  in  all  the  southern  states. 

598.  Botanical  origin.  —  The  native  home  of  the  cow- 
pea  ( Vigna  sinensis]  is  doubtless  Central  Africa.    Through- 
out much  of  that  continent  occurs  a  wild  plant  differing 
from  the  cultivated  cowpea  in  having  smaller  seeds  and 
dark  pods  which  coil  in  ripening.     Hybrids  of  this  wild 
plant  and  the  cowpea  are  readily  obtained.     Occasionally 
the  wild  plant  is  cultivated  by  African  tribes,  but  ordi- 
narily the  cultivated  plants  are  modified,  having  straw- 
colored  pods  and  somewhat  larger  seeds.     In  no  other 
region  have  wild  cowpeas  been  found. 

Cultivated  varieties  of  cowpeas  occur  through  Africa 
and  over  the  southern  half  of  Asia  and  the  adjacent  islands. 
The  large  number  and  great  diversity  of  the  varieties  over 
this  vast  region  indicate  that  its  extended  culture  is  very 
ancient.  There  is,  however,  no  direct  evidence  on  this 
point  in  the  way  of  seeds  from  ancient  temples  or  tombs. 

599.  Agricultural  history.  —  In  the  old  world,  particu- 
larly Africa  and  Asia,  as  well  as  the  Mediterranean  region 
of  Europe,  the  cowpea  is  of  ancient  cultivation  for  human 

491 


492         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR    CULTURE 


food.  It  is  without  doubt  the  phaseolus  of  Pliny,  Colu- 
mella  and  other  Roman  writers,  but  this  name  became 
applied  also  to  the  kidney-bean  following  its  introduction 
into  Europe  from  America.  In  Italy,  however,  the  black- 
eye  cowpea  is  still  called 
by  the  same  name  as 
kidney-beans,  namely, 
fagiolo. 

The  cowpea  early  be- 
came introduced  into 
the  West  Indies  and  was 
well  known  in  Carolina 
as  early  as  1775.  Its 
culture  had  extended  to 
Virginia  by  1795,  and 
was  probably  general 
early  in  the  nineteenth 
century. 

In  the  United  States, 
the  cowpea  has  always 
been  grown  mainly  as  a 
forage   and  restorative 
crop,    but    the    seeds, 
particularly  of  the  white 
or  nearly  white-seeded 
varieties,  are  commonly 
used    as    human   food, 
especially  in  the  South. 
As  early  as  1822,  several  varieties  are  mentioned  by 
American  writers,  one  of  which,  with  buff-colored  seeds, 
was  called  the  "  Cow  "  pea.     From  this  variety  the  name 
has  become  extended  to  the  whole  crop. 

600.  Adaptations.  —  The  cowpea  is  adapted  to  almost 


FIG.  59.  —  Cowpea. 


COWPEAS  493 

the  same  climatic  conditions  as  corn.  It  requires,  how- 
ever, somewhat  more  heat,  as  corn  will  develop  at  least 
to  the  "  roasting  ear  "  stage  in  regions  too  cool  for  cow- 
peas.  In  drought  resistance  there  is  but  slight  difference, 
but  that  is  in  favor  of  the  cowpea. 

The  cowpea  is  not  particular  as  to  soil  except  that  it 
be  well  drained.  It  succeeds  apparently  quite  as  well  on 
sandy  soils  as  on  heavy  clays.  Both  in  spring  and  in  fall 
the  leaves  are  injured  by  the  least  touch  of  frost,  and  a 
heavy  frost  is  always  fatal.  Cowpeas  withstand  moderate 
shade,  sufficiently  so  at  least  to  be  valuable  to  grow  in 
orchards.  In  heavy  shade  they  are  usually  much  subject 
to  mildew. 

601.  Importance.  —  The  cowpea  is  the  most  important 
legume  grown  in  the  area  where  cotton  is  cultivated. 
The  only  statistics   available   are  those  which   concern 
seed-production.     There  were   harvested  for  seed  in  the 
Southern  States  209,604  acres  in  1909.     This  is  probably 
only  a  small  fraction  of  the  entire  acreage  planted. 

602.  Uses  of  the  crop.  —  The  ancient  use  of  cowpeas 
was  as  human  food,  and  this  is  still  the  case  in  all  Old 
World  countries  where  the  crop  is  grown.     In  the  United 
States,  varieties  with  white  or  nearly  white  seeds  are 
mainly  grown  for  this  purpose,  though  seeds  of  any  variety 
may  be  eaten.     In  California,  blackeye  cowpeas  are  grown 
primarily  for  the  seeds,  being  adapted  to  drier  soils  than 
Lima  beans. 

Only  in  the  United  States  are  cowpeas  grown  mainly 
for  forage  and  green  manure.  As  forage,  it  is  especially 
valuable  because  it  will  grow  in  all  types  of  arable  soil 
as  a  short  summer  crop,  requiring  but  little  attention, 
as  it  is  able  to  smother  most  weeds,  and  producing  most 
excellent  forage  either  for  hay  or  pasture.  Incidentally, 


494        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

it  is  a  splendid  restorative  crop,  which  has  led  to  its 
being  largely  used  purely  for  green  manure. 

603.  Varietal   distinctions.  —  The  varieties  of  cowpea 
are  very  numerous.     They  are  distinguished  by  various 
characters,    those    of    agronomic    importance    being   the 
habit,    life-period,   disease  resistance  and   differences   of 
pods  and  seeds. 

On  the  pod  and  seed  characters,  three  subspecies  have 
been  recognized,  —  namely,  the  catjang,  with  small  erect 
pods  and  small  subcylindric  seeds ;  the  asparagus  bean, 
with  very  long  inflated  pods  which  in  ripening  collapse 
about  the  kidney-shaped  seeds ;  and  the  cowpea,  with 
pendent  thick-walled  pods  which  preserve  their  form,  and 
containing  variously  shaped  seeds. 

In  habit  the  unsupported  plant  may  be  prostrate,  lying 
flat  on  the  ground  ;  procumbent,  the  mass  two  to  four  times 
as  broad  as  high ;  low,  half-bushy,  the  mass  of  vines  once 
or  twice  as  broad  as  high ;  tall,  half -bushy,  the  mass  taller 
than  broad ;  erect,  not  at  all  vining  and  taller  than  broad. 
From  a  forage  standpoint,  the  half-bushy  varieties  are 
most  valuable,  and  when  planted  in  corn  or  other  support- 
ing crop  their  vining  habit  asserts  itself. 

604.  Life   period.  —  The   life   period   of   the   different 
varieties  —  that  is,  the  time  from  germination  till  the 
plant  is  mature  —  is  a  matter  of  importance,  especially 
toward  the  northern  limit  of  the  crop.     The  cowpea  is 
indeterminate  in  growth  —  that  is,  under  favorable  condi- 
tions of  moisture  and  temperature,  it  continues  to  grow 
indefinitely  —  and  the   conditions  which  favor  excessive 
vegetative  growth  inhibit  the  formation  of  pods  and  seeds. 
In  other  words,  the  fluctuating  variation  of  the  cowpea  is 
very  great,   and   many  writers   have   mistaken  this  for 
hereditary  variation.     On  this   account,   some   arbitrary 


cow  PEAS  495 

stage  of  maturity  needs  to  be  selected  in  order  to  compare 
varieties.  The  dates  that  have  been  most  used  are  when 
the  first  pod  is  ripe  and  when  the  majority  of  the  pods  are 
ripe,  the  latter  date  usually  ten  to  fifteen  days  later  than 
the  former. 

The  length  of  the  life  period  varies  slightly  according  to 
season,  but  markedly  depending  on  date  of  planting. 
Thus,  at  the  Tennessee  Experiment  Station,  Mooers 
found  that  the  Whippoorwill  cowpea  varied  in  life  period 
as  follows  :  Planted  April  15,  183  days  ;  May  1,  168  days ; 
May  15,  153  days  ;  June  5,  132  days ;  June  17,  113  days ; 
June  29,  101  days. 

In  general,  early  varieties  of  cowpea  will  mature  their 
first  pods  in  70  to  90  days ;  medium  varieties,  in  90  to  100 
days.  Beyond  this  are  all  degrees  of  lateness,  some  tropi- 
cal sorts  not  even  coming  to  bloom  under  conditions  in 
Virginia,  Mississippi  or  northern  Florida. 

605.  Pods  and  seeds.  —  The  greatest  variation  in  cow- 
peas  occurs  in  the  pods  and  seeds,  characters  of  importance 
in  distinguishing  varieties.  Considering  only  the  true 
cowpeas  —  that  is,  excluding  the  catjangs  and  asparagus 
beans  —  they  may  be  divided  by  their  pod  and  seed  char- 
acters into  two  groups ;  namely,  kidney  and  crowder. 
Kidney  cowpeas  have  their  pods  somewhat  compressed, 
and  reniform  or  subreniform  seeds.  Crowder  cowpeas 
have  thick-walled,  terete  pods,  and  globose,  or,  if  much 
crowded,  somewhat  disk-form,  seeds.  The  crowder  varie- 
ties are  not  as  numerous  as  the  kidney,  but  nearly  every 
color  of  seeds  that  occur  in  the  latter  may  be  found  in  the 
former.  Cowpea  pods  are  usually  straw-colored,  but  in 
a  few  varieties  are  purple,  and  in  a  single  known  variety 
purple  streaked. 

The   seeds  closely  resemble  the  common  kidney-bean, 


496        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

and  there  is  quite  as  wide  a  range  in  the  color  of  the  testa. 
On  uniformly  colored  seeds,  the  testa  may  be  black, 
brown,  purple,  buff,  maroon,  pink,  or  white;  or  where 
more  than  one  color  is  concerned,  it  may  be  speckled, 
usually  blue  speckles  on  a  buff  or  brown  background ; 
or  marbled,  commonly  brown  on  buff  or  on  maroon;  or 
both  marbled  and  speckled.  When  the  seed  is  not  uni- 
formly colored,  the  second  color  is  concentrated  about  the 
eye  or  hilum  in  various  forms,  or  else  blotched  in  an  irregu- 
lar saddle-shaped  area.  White  cowpeas  may  be  eyed  or 
blotched  with  any  of  the  other  colors,  or  the  white  may 
be  exposed  only  on  a  small  spot  at  the  chalazal  end  of  the 
seed.  In  all  cowpeas,  the  germ  is  yellowish. 

606.  Correlations.  —  But   few   definite   correlations   of 
characters  have  been  observed  in  cowpeas,   and  much 
breeding  work  is  necessary  before  these  can  be  considered 
proven.     As  in  all   annual  legumes,   earliness  is  nearly 
always  associated  with  lessened  growth.     White-flowered 
cowpeas  have  their  seeds  white  or  mainly  so,  or  coffee- 
colored.     All  other  colors  of  seeds  are  associated  with 
purple  flowers.      Purple  coloration  of   the   leaves   or   of 
the   leaf -nodes  is  nearly  always   associated  with  purple 
flowers. 

607.  Important  varieties.  —  Among  the  very  numerous 
varieties  of  cowpeas,   comparatively  few  are  important 
either    commercially    or    agronomically.     Unfortunately, 
some  of  the  commercial  names  are  based  wholly  on  the 
color  of  the  seed,  and  thus  comprise  a  number  of  distinct 
varieties  under  a  single  designation. 

Whippoorwill.  —  Probably  more  than  half  of  the 
acreage  of  cowpeas  in  the  United  States  is  devoted  to  this 
variety.  It  is  easily  distinguished  by  its  subreniform 
seeds,  which  are  buff  marbled  with  brown.  This  variety 


PLATE  VII.  —  GROIT  COWPEAS  IN  A  BROADCASTED  FIELD  IN 
VIRGINIA. 


COWPEAS  497 

is  also  called  Shinney  and  Speckled.  It  has  been  known 
in  the  United  States  for  at  least  seventy  years. 

Iron.  —  This  variety  became  known  first  from  Barnwell 
County,  South  Carolina,  in  1888.  It  is  especially  valuable 
on  account  of  its  immunity  to  rootknot  and  wilt.  The 
seeds  are  rhomboid,  buff  in  color,  decidedly  angular,  and 
harder  than  most  cowpeas.  It  is  perhaps  on  this  account 
that  Iron  volunteers  to  a  greater  extent  than  any  other 
important  variety,  the  hard  seeds  resisting  decay.  The 
Iron  is  not  a  heavy  seed  producer. 

New  Era.  —  Among  well-known  varieties,  this  is  the 
most  bushy  in  habit  and  earliest  to  mature,  the  first  pods 
ripening  in  about  seventy-five  days.  The  seeds  are  easily 
recognizable,  being  small,  rhomboidal,  buff,  thickly  and 
evenly  sprinkled  with  minute  blue  specks. 

Groit.  —  This  is  a  cross  between  Whippoorwill  and  New 
Era,  the  seeds  sharing  the  coloration  of  both  parents, 
apparently  superimposed  on  each  other.  It  is  larger  and 
more  prolific  than  New  Era,  and  on  the  whole  the  best 
forage  cowpea  for  states  north  of  the  cotton  belt. 

Brabham.  —  This  is  a  cross  between  Iron  and  Whip- 
poorwill, having  the  immunity  of  the  former,  and  being 
even  more  vigorous  in  growth  than  the  latter.  It  is  later 
than  either  parent,  and  in  sandy  soils  very  prolific. 

Clay.  —  This  name  is  given  commercially  to  any  buff- 
colored  cowpea  except  Iron.  There  are  several  varieties 
with  such  seeds,  differing  much  in  earliness  and  habit, 
but  most  of  them  are  quite  viny.  Those  which  mature 
their  first  pods  in  about  90  days  make  up  most  of  the  seed 
sold  as  Clay,  while  those  which  require  110  days  or  so 
probably  constitute  the  variety  which  appears  in  agronomic 
literature  as  Wonderful  or  Unknown.  None  of  the  buff- 
seeded  varieties  except  Iron  possesses  especial  merit. 

2K 


498         FORAGE  PLANTS   AND    THEIR    CULTURE 

Black.  —  Seedsmen  sell  all  black-seeded  cowpeas  under 
this  name,  but  there  are  several  varieties.  The  most 
common  are  Early  Black  or  Congo,  maturing  its  first 
pods  in  about  70  days,  and  ordinary  Black,  requiring 
about  80  days.  Both  are  decidedly  viny,  and  somewhat 
sprawling.  Black  is  nevertheless  popular  in  some  sec- 
tions because  the  seeds  do  not  decay  readily  after  ripen- 
ing, even  if  they  lie  on  moist  earth. 

Red  Ripper.  —  Commercially  all  cowpeas  with  maroon 
seeds  are  called  Red  Ripper,  but  there  are  at  least  eight 
varieties  with  maroon  seeds  more  or  less  widely  grown.  In 
a  general  way,  the  maroon-seeded  varieties  closely  resemble 
those  with  buff  seeds,  and  none  possesses  outstanding 
merit. 

Early  Buff.  —  This  is  a  new  variety,  the  progeny  of  a 
single  seed  obtained  from  Leghorn,  Italy,  in  1907.  It  is 
a  very  prolific,  half -bushy  variety,  maturing  about  two 
weeks  earlier  than  New  Era.  The  first  pods  ripen  in  about 
65  days.  It  is  the  earliest  variety  of  over  300  tested  at 
Arlington  Farm,  Virginia,  and  should  prove  valuable  at 
the  northern  limit  of  cowpea  culture. 

Blackeye.  —  Varieties  of  cowpeas  having  the  seed  white 
with  a  black  spot  at  the  hilum  are  mostly  known  as 
Blackeye,  but  among  American  varieties  several  possess 
such  colored  seeds.  None  of  them  has  a  bushy  habit 
such  as  is  desirable  for  forage,  but  blackeyed  varieties 
are  grown  almost  wholly  for  human  food.  It  is  probable 
that  the  total  acreage  of  blackeyed  varieties  is  exceeded 
by  no  other  sort  except  Whippoorwill. 

608.  Rate  and  method  of  seeding.  —  Cowpeas,  when 
planted  alone,  are  sown  broadcast,  drilled,  or  in  broad 
rows  to  be  cultivated.  When  broadcasted,  one  or  two 
bushels  to  an  acre  are  planted ;  if  drilled,  five  pecks 


COWPEAS  499 

to  an  acre  is  very  satisfactory;  while  in  three-foot 
rows,  fifteen  to  twenty  pounds  is  sufficient. 

Formerly  cowpeas  were  often  planted  in  grain  stubble 
without  further  preparation  of  the  ground.  This  practice 
is  now  much  less  common,  special  preparation  of  the  soil 
being  the  rule.  On  account  of  higher  seed  prices,  as  well 
as  better  yields  of  both  hay  and  seed,  planting  in  cul- 
tivated rows  is  becoming  more  popular.  When  thus 
planted,  two  or  three  cultivations  are  necessary. 

At  the  Arkansas  Experiment  Station,  six  varieties  of 
cowpeas  were  sown  at  rates  varying  from  6.25  pounds  to 
100  pounds  to  an  acre.  The  highest  average  yield  of  hay 
was  produced  from  25  pounds  of  seed.  The  heaviest 
yields  of  hay  varied  to  a  considerable  extent  with  the 
variety  and  amount  of  seed  sown,  ranging  with  the 
Whippoorwill  from  12.5  pounds  of  seed  to  the  Taylor  from 
100  pounds  of  seed.  In  another  experiment  with  the 
same  varieties,  it  was  found  that  the  best  seed  yields 
were  secured  by  sowing  not  less  than  12.5  nor  more 
than  37.5  pounds  to  an  acre. 

At  the  North  Carolina  Experiment  Station  in  a  three 
years'  test  of  different  quantities  of  seed  in  3|  foot  rows 
with  the  New  Era  variety  the  best  yields  of  hay  were 
secured  by  planting  one-half  bushel  of  seed  to  an  acre. 

609.  Time  of  seeding.  —  Cowpeas  should  never  be 
sown  before  the  ground  becomes  well  warmed.  It  is 
never  advisable  to  sow  them  before  corn  planting  time, 
and  usually  it  is  better  to  delay  sowing  at  least  two  weeks 
later.  After  this  time  they  can  be  sown  whenever  moisture 
conditions  are  favorable.  The  latest  date  for  profitable 
sowing  is  about  ninety  days  before  the  first  killing  frost. 

Early  sowings  are  unprofitable  because  the  seed  is  apt 
to  decay  in  the  soil,  but  even  if  a  perfect  stand  is  secured. 


500        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

the  growth  is  very  slow  until  hot  weather  comes.  Thus, 
Mooers  at  the  Tennessee  Experiment  Station  found  that 
Whippoorwill  cowpeas  sown  April  15,  May  1,  May  15, 
June  5,  June  17,  and  June  29,  all  became  fully  mature  at 
about  the  same  date;  namely,  the  middle  of  October. 
The  earliest  sowing  required  183  days  to  mature,  while 
the  latest  needed  but  101  days. 

If  grown  primarily  for  hay,  the  time  of  planting  should 
be  regulated  so  that  the  crop  is  ready  to  cut  at  the  time 
weather  conditions  are  best.  Through  most  of  the  cotton 
region  rains  are  less  frequent  in  September  and  October 
than  earlier. 

610.  Inoculation.  —  It  is  rarely  necessary  to  apply 
bacteria  for  the  production  of  the  cowpea,  as  natural 
inoculation  is  quite  generally  distributed  throughout  the 
Southern  States. 

At  the  Michigan  Experiment  Station,  investigations 
were  conducted  to  learn  the  influence  of  nodules  on  the 
composition  of  the  cowpea.  The  following  .table  gives 
the  composition  of  the  dry  matter  in  the  leaves,  stems, 
and  roots  of  inoculated  and  not  inoculated  cowpeas :  — 


DRY 

MATTER 

PRO- 

NITRO- 

ASH 

PHOS- 
PHORIC 

POTASH 

GRAMS 

TEIN 

GEN 

ACID 

Inoculated  : 

PerCent 

Per  Cent 

PerCent 

Per  Cent 

PerCent 

Leaves     .     .     . 

220.61 

27.08 

4.33 

16.38 

.71 

1.63 

Stems      .     .     . 

220.21 

17.93 

2.87 

12.40 

.65 

3.32 

•  Roots      .     .     . 

171.15 

5.61 

.89 

5.38 

.62 

1.32 

Not  inoculated 

Leaves     . 

238.41 

21.52 

3.48 

18.30 

.87 

1.20 

Stems      .     .     . 

315.44 

10.47 

1.67 

9.73 

.83 

2.04 

Roots      .     .     . 

62.75 

12.34 

1.97 

8.57 

.61 

2.53 

COWPEAS  501 

611.  Number  of  cuttings.  —  Under  favorable  conditions, 
cowpea  plants  will  sprout  again  from  the  base  —  indeed, 
this  will  take  place  indefinitely  in  a  greenhouse  plant,  but 
the  growth  becomes  greatly  reduced.     A  second  crop  of 
hay,  or  at  least  considerable  pasturage,  is  sometimes  se- 
cured if  good  moisture  conditions  follow  the  first  cutting, 
as  happens  not  uncommonly  near  the  Gulf  coast.     Ordi- 
narily, however,  but  a  single  cutting  of  the  crop  can  be 
made. 

612.  Hay.  —  Cowpeas  should  not  be  cut  for  hay  until 
the  first  pods  are  ripe,  and  the  cutting  may  be  delayed 
until  considerably  later.     After  the  pods  begin  to  ripen, 
the  leaflets  are  more  likely  to  fall  off,  especially  if  the 
plants  are  attacked  by  leaf -spot  or  rust.     Unless  these 
diseases  are  serious,   the   cutting  can  be  delayed  until 
many  of  the  pods  are  ripe.     If  these  are  promptly  picked, 
a  continuous  succession  of  pods  will  be  formed. 

Cowpeas  planted  thickly,  or  even  in  three-foot  rows, 
support  each  other  so  that  they  can  be  cut  with  an  ordinary 
mower,  to  which  it  is  desirable  to  add  a  bunching  attach- 
ment. A  self -rake  reaper  is  also  excellent  to  harvest 
cowpeas.  The  vining  varieties  like  Clay,  Black,  and  Red 
Ripper  are  less  easily  handled  than  the  more  bunchy 
varieties  like  Whippoorwill  and  New  Era. 

Cowpeas  have  rather  succulent  leaves  and  thick  stems, 
so  that  they  are  not  easily  cured  except  in  very  favorable 
weather.  Also  the  large  leaflets  are  inclined  to  mat 
together.  In  hay  making,  it  is  common  to  use  some  type 
of  shock  supporter,  as  this  greatly  aids  the  final  stages  of 
curing.  In  curing,  the  especial  points  to  guard  against 
are  permitting  the  leaves  to  become  too  dry  in  the  swath 
before  raking  into  windrows,  as  loss  of  leaves  may  result ; 
and  making  the  cocks  too  large,  as  the  moist  stems  are 


502 


FORAGE  PL  A  NT  8  AND  THEIR  CULTURE 


apt  to  favor  mildewing,  especially  of  .the  pods.  Even 
with  favorable  weather,  quick  curing  is  impossible  owing 
to  succulency  of  the  stems  and  green  pods.  Should  the 
hay  be  wetted  by  rain  at  any  stage  of  curing,  it  should 
not  be  handled  again  until  the  surface  is  well  dried. 

Even  when  poorly  cured  —  or  indeed,  moldy  and 
decayed  —  cowpea  hay  is  eaten  by  animals,  a  partial 
compensation  for  the  difficulty  of  curing  it  satisfactorily. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  percentage  of  protein,  and  fat, 
as  well  as  of  the  ash  and  fiber  increases  from  first  bloom 
until  the  pods  are  fully  formed,  while  the  carbohydrates 
decrease  markedly.  Chemical  composition,  therefore, 
agrees  with  other  considerations  in  indicating  that  the 
best  time  to  cut  cowpeas  for  hay  is  when  the  first  pods 
become  mature.  The  fiber  of  the  cowpea  vines  when 
mature  is  fairly  strong  and  from  time  to  time  its  use  as  a 
textile  has  been  suggested. 

In  the  following  table  is  shown  the  composition  of  the 
cowpea  at  different  stages  of  growth :  — 

TABLE  SHOWING  COMPOSITION  OF  COWPEA  HAY  AT  DIFFERENT 
STAGES  OF  MATURITY.     WATER-FREE 


STAGE  OF  DEVELOPMENT 

PROTEIN 

FAT 

FIBER 

NITROGEN- 
FREE 
EXTRACT 

ASH 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Per  Cent 

Full  bloom        .... 

17.86 

4.04 

18.39 

52.28 

7.43 

Pods  forming   .... 
Pods  formed     .... 

19.93 
21.38 

3.06 
5.01 

18.52 
29.05 

50.58 
32.59 

7.91 
11.97 

613.  Hay  yields.  —  The  yield  of  cowpea  hay  ranges 
from  one  to  three  tons  to  the  acre,  varying  according  to 
variety,  soil  and  weather  conditions. 


COWPEAS 


503 


TABLE  SHOWING  ACRE    YIELD  IN  POUNDS  OF   COWPEA  HAY  AT 
VARIOUS  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS 


00 

& 
M 

•<  • 

£ 

5 

(M 

13 
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2 

B 

•*< 

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£5 

^ 

GO 

P 

CH 

VARIETY 

H 

P 

i 

^ 

fc 

2 

i 

•5 

O 

^ 

I 

J 

i 

2; 

M 

03 

^ 

1C 

•SJ 

Q 

O 

1 

? 

I 

Whippoorwill    .... 
Clay  

2720 

2852 

3297 

4872 

3850 
3960 

16892 
20664 

4476 
4219 

5260 
3880 

2880 
2556 

3720 
3660 

16600 

3424 
3688 

TT  lr 

3143 

3990 

21730 

2916 

14000 

5200 

New  Era  

2310 

2756 

3620 

3893 

4280 

2628 

3660 

14600 

2727 

1  fi9OO 

Red  Ripper     .... 

3720 

4230 

25256 



2350 

4270 

3339 

Black   

2239 

2702 

3190 

21812 



4460 

2090 

4420 

11000 

3175 

Taylor 

3041 

3270 

4940 

2420 

2803 

16400 

4340 

2090 

3290 

15000 

2560 

Extra  Early  Blackeye  . 

1116 

1628 

2650 

2769 

1369 

3050 

2602 

Michigan  Favorite  .  . 





3450 



4325 





3350 

13600 

2400 

Groit   

3350 

614.  Feeding  value.  —  The  high  feeding  value  of  cow- 
pea  hay  has  long  been  recognized  and  it  has  been  used 
extensively  for  all  kinds  of  stock.  It  is  particularly  high 
in  protein,  and  where  properly  cared  for,  furnishes  one  of 
the  cheapest  feeds  for  the  modern  farm. 

Experiments  in  the  feeding  of  cowpea  hay  in  compari- 
son with  other  feeds  have  been  repeatedly  made  at  various 
experiment  stations  throughout  the  country.  The  Ten- 
nessee Station  found  that  6  to  10  pounds  of  cowpea  hay 
could  be  substituted  for  3  to  5  pounds  of  cotton-seed  meal 
in  beef  production.  In  the  production  of  milk  and  butter 
this  station  reports  that  1^  pounds  of  chopped  pea  hay  is 
equivalent  to  one  pound  of  wheat  bran,  and  3  pounds  of 

1  Green  weight. 


504         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 

chopped  pea  hay  to  one  pound  of  cotton-seed  meal.  In  a 
comparison  of  cowpea  hay  with  timothy  hay  for  wintering 
yearlings,  it  was  found  that  the  steers  made  nearly  50  per 
cent  better  gains  where  the  cowpea  hay  was  used.  In  a 
three  months'  test  at  the  North  Carolina  Experiment 
Station  with  two,  Percheron  mares  used  as  a  team,  the 
rations  differed  only  in  the  use  of  10  pounds  of  cowpea 
hay  in  one  and  the  same  quantity  of  wheat  bran  in  the 
other.  The  horse  fed  bran  just  held  its  own,  while  the 
animal  fed  cowpea  hay  gained  a  little. 

The  high  price  of  cowpea  seed  prevents  its  use  as  a  feed, 
although  its  composition  indicates  that  it  is  a  richer  feed 
than  wheat  bran.  Excellent  results  were  obtained 
by  the  Alabama  Experiment  Station  by  feeding  cowpea 
seed  to  fattening  hogs.  More  lean  meat  was  found  in  the 
bodies  of  the  pigs  fed  cowpeas  than  in  those  fed  corn  meal 
only.  Cracked  or  split  seeds,  and  also  whole  seeds  have 
been  fed  to  poultry  with  splendid  results.  Not  only  were 
the  fowls  kept  in  good  condition,  but  a  good  production 
of  eggs  resulted,  even  in  the  winter  months. 

The  straw  obtained  when  cowpea  seed  is  secured  by  run- 
ning the  vines  through  a  thrashing  machine  is  valuable  as 
feed.  Certain  types  of  machines  chop  the  straw  so  that 
it  is  in  fine  condition  for  feed.  There  is,  however,  lack 
of  experimental  data  with  regard  to  the  feeding  value  of 
this  straw.  Reports  from  farmers  and  others  who  have 
fed  the  straw  indicate  that  it  is  an  excellent  feed. 

615.  Cowpeas  in  broadcast  mixtures.  —  To  furnish 
support  to  the  vines  as  well  as  to  facilitate  curing,  cowpeas 
are  often  planted  in  combination  with  some  other  crop. 
When  broadcasted  or  drilled,  millet,  sorghum,  Johnson- 
grass,  or  soybeans  may  thus  be  used.  The  ideal  mixture 
would  be  a  stiff-stemmed  easily  curing  grass  that  matures 


COWPEAS  505 

with  the  cowpea.  Such  a  grass  would  prevent  matting 
of  the  leaves,  and  otherwise  promote  aeration  and  drying 
of  the  shocks.  None  of  the  above-named  plants  quite 
fulfills  these  requirements.  Millet  of  any  variety  matures 
earlier  than  the  cowpea,  and  often  is  too  small  for  support. 
Amber  sorghum  is  excellent  from  the  standpoint  of  size 
and  time  of  maturity,  but  the  juicy  stems  do  not  cure 
easily.  Johnson-grass  is  excellent  wherever  it  is  not  objec- 
tionable as  a  weed.  The  newly  introduced  Sudan-grass 
promises  to  be  exactly  what  is  needed.  Soybeans  help 
support  the  cowpeas,  and  with  proper  choice  of  variety, 
simultaneous  maturity  is  easily  secured,  but  the  mixture 
does  not  cure  much  more  easily  than  cowpeas  alone. 

In  seeding  such  mixtures,  enough  seed  should  be  used 
to  secure  a  half  stand,  or  better,  of  each.  One  bushel  of 
cowpeas  and  half  a  bushel  of  Amber  sorghum  an  acre  gives 
excellent  results ;  if  millet  is  used,  15  to  20  pounds  is  suffi- 
cient. Johnson-grass  seed  is  so  poor  in  quality  as  a  rule 
that  at  least  a  bushel  should  be  used,  with  a  bushel  of 
cowpeas  to  an  acre.  Where  a  soybean-cowpea  mixture 
is  used,  better  results  are  usually  secured  if  the  former 
predominates,  using  one  bushel  of  soybeans  and  one-half 
bushel  of  cowpeas  to  the  acre. 

616.  Cowpea  mixtures  not  broadcasted.  —  Cowpeas 
are  very  widely  used  for  planting  in  between  the  rows  of 
corn.  When  thus  used,  the  seed  is  sown  at  the  rate  of 
about  three  pecks  an  acre  after  the  last  cultivation  of  the 
corn.  Usually  the  crop  is  allowed  to  mature,  and  some  of 
the  pods  picked,  and  the  remainder  of  the  crop  is  pastured. 
In  some  regions,  however,  the  cowpeas  are  cut  for  hay 
after  the  corn  has  been  harvested.  If  this  is  done,  it  is 
desirable  to  cut  the  corn  stems  close  to  the  ground,  as 
otherwise  the  stubble  will  interfere  with  a  mower.  Where 


506        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

the  corn  is  not  cut  close  to  the  ground,  heavy  wooden 
rakes  are  sometimes  used  to  harvest  cowpea  vines. 

Another  method  of  sowing  cowpeas  in  corn  is  to  plant 
the  seed  close  to  the  corn  plants  after  the  last  cultivation 
of  that  crop.  The  cowpea  vines  then  climb  up  the  corn 
stalks  and  add  materially  to  the  amount  of  herbage. 
When  the  mixture  is  thus  grown,  it  is  usually  preserved 
as  silage.  The  cowpeas  add  considerably  to  the  value 
of  the  silage,  but  also  increase  somewhat  the  difficulty 
of  harvesting,  as  the  vines  bind  the  corn  stalks  together. 

617.  Growing  cowpeas  for  seed.  —  The  great  bulk  of 
the  cowpea  seed  grown  in  the  United  States  is  hand-picked. 
When  this  is  done,  the  vines  should  be  picked  over  two 
times  in  order  to  secure  the  maximum  yields.    Hand-pick- 
ing, however,  necessarily  means  a  high  price  for  the  seed. 

The  vines  may  be  cut  when  half  or  more  of  the  pods 
are  ripe.  The  riper  the  pods,  the  more  easy  the  curing, 
but  the  less  valuable  the  residual  straw  for  feed.  The 
mowing  is  very  satisfactorily  done  with  a  self -rake  reaper. 
If  this  is  not  available,  an  ordinary  mowing  machine  may 
be  used,  but  it  is  very  desirable  to  use  with  it  a  bunching 
attachment.  Bean  harvesters  which  cut  the  stems  just 
beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground  are  very  satisfactory  in 
sandy  soils,  but  not  in  clay  soils. 

In  thrashing  cowpeas  with  an  ordinary  grain  separator 
many  of  the  seeds  are  cracked  even  when  the  speed  of  the 
cylinders  is  much  reduced.  The  vines  too  are  inclined  to 
wrap  about  the  cylinders,  necessitating  frequent  stoppings. 
The  use  of  sharpened  teeth  on  the  cylinders  or  concaves 
or  both  prevents  this  clogging,  and  also  greatly  reduces 
the  percentage  of  seeds  cracked. 

618.  Pollination.  —  The    cowpea    is    completely    self- 
fertile,  flowers  protected  from  insects  setting  pods  normally. 


COWPEAS 


507 


Insect  visitors  are  numerous,  but  they  are  attracted  mainly 
to  the  extra-floral  nectaries  at  the  base  of  each  flower. 
Natural  cross-pollination  is  usually  very  rare,  but  in  a  few 
localities,  as  at  the  Michigan  Experiment  Station,  occurs 
abundantly.  This  is  probably  due  to  bumblebees,  but 
exact  observations  are  lacking.  .  Through  such  chance 
crosses  the  majority  of  American  varieties  of  cowpeas 
have  probably  arisen. 

619.  Seed  yield.  —  Varieties  of  cowpeas  vary  strikingly 
in  their  seed  production,  the  bunch  varieties  usually  yield- 
ing more  seed  than  the  trailing  sorts.  Moreover,  the 
yield  of  seed  with  the  same  variety  varies  greatly  from 
year  to  year,  depending  upon  weather  conditions  and 
according  to  locality.  In  favorable  seasons,  good  produc- 
ing varieties  yield  from  fifteen  to  thirty  bushels  to  the 
acre,  while  in  unfavorable  seasons  the  same  varieties  may 
yield  only  five  to  ten  bushels  to  the  acre. 

TABLE  SHOWING  ACRE  YIELD  OF  COWPEA  SEED  AT  VARIOUS 
EXPERIMENT  STATIONS 


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Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

Bu. 

BM. 

Su. 

Whippoorwill     .     .                .     . 

12.4 

25.6 

13.2 

25.3 

18.3 

11.5 

14.0 

11.7 

13.8 

Clay     

10.8 

9.8 

6.6 

34.3 

5.3 

10.9 

14.4 

7.0 

13.3 

Unknown      ...                .     . 

14.7 

2.5 

30.5 

8.8 

New  Era             .                      .     . 

22.0 

39.9 

15.6 

14.0 

12.4 

14.0 

11.9 

24.2 

Iron     ...                      .     . 

14.9 

7.4 

6.3 

17.5 

9.9 

9.3 

Red  Ripper        .                      .     . 

19.3 

11.9 

27.7 

8.3 

8.9 

Black 

21.1 

15.7 

7.4 

19.9 

11.1 

18.6 

13.0 

Taylor      .           .                .     . 

23.6 

19.9 

4.9 

11.9 

11.5 

Large  Blackeye                 .     . 

17.0 

23.6 

5.6 

31.3 

12.7 

14.8 

9.8 

21.7 

Extra  Early  Blackeye 

16.4 

29.1 

5.4 

14.2 

10.6 

9.2 

9.9 

Michigan  Favorite      .     .     . 

8.2 

19.3 

11.2 

11.4 

7.9 

Groit   

8.2 

14.8 

508        FOE  AGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR    CULTURE 


620.  Proportion  of  seed  and  hulls.  —  The  method  of 
gathering  seed  by  hand,  where  the  peas  are  planted  in 
corn,  is  a  very  common  practice  throughout  the  South. 
Fields  grown  to  cowpeas  alone  for  seed-production  are 
often  hand  picked.  Generally  the  pods  are  picked  at  a 
price  for  each  hundred  pounds.  From  the  results  obtained 
at  the  Alabama  and  Arkansas  Agricultural  Experiment 
Stations,  it  appears  that  the  proportion  of  seed  and  hulls 
varies  according  to  the  variety  and  locality. 

TABLE  SHOWING  POUNDS  OF  COWPEA  SEED  IN  100  POUNDS 
OF  PODS 


Variety 

Ala- 
bama 

Ar- 
kansas 

Variety 

Ala- 
bama 

Ar- 
kansas 

Large  White  Crowder 
Large  Blackeye    .     . 
Taylor     .     .     . 
Ex.  Early  Blackeye 
Black      

83 

77 
77 
76 
76 

75.0 
71.2 
64.7 
75.0 
63.2 

Whippoorwill 
New  Era  .  . 
Red  Ripper  . 
Wonderful  . 
Iron 

73 
73 
71 
70 
69 

67.3 
61.8 
66.0 

65.3 

Lady 

74 

632 

Clay 

67 

583 

621.  Seeds.  —  Cowpea  seed  is  usually  considered  to 
weigh  60  pounds  to  the  bushel,  but  this  varies  consid- 
erably according  to  the  variety.  On  the  basis  of  60  pounds, 
the  number  of  seeds  to  the  bushel  has  been  calculated  by 
Duggar,  by  Newman  and  by  Morse.  Duggar  used  the 
weight  of  100  seeds  as  a  basis,  while  Newman  counted  the 
number  in  one  ounce,  and  Morse  counted  the  number  in 
three  samples  of  one  ounce  each.  The  largest  seeded 
varieties  contain  less  than  100,000  seeds  to  the  pound, 
while  the  smallest  seeded  catjangs  contain  five  times  as 
many.  The  common  commercial  varieties  average  about 
150,000  seeds  to  the  pound.  The  figures  for  standard 
and  other  varieties  are  shown  in  the  following  table  :  — 


COWPEAS 


509 


COWPEA  SEEDS,  NUMBER  TO  THE  OUNCE  AND  BUSHEL  AND 
WEIGHT  OF  100  SEEDS  OF  DIFFERENT  VARIETIES 


SEEDS  IN  ONE 
OUNCE 

WEIGHT 
OP  100 

SEEDS  IN  60  POUNDS 

VARIETY 

SEEDS 

Newman 

Morse 

Duggar 

Duggar 

Newman 

Morse 

Grams 

Black  Crowder  . 



102 

97120 

Taylor        .     .     . 

107 

117 

28.72 

94634 

102720 

112320 

Black    .... 

141 

149 

22.07 

123153 

135360 

143040 

Red  Ripper    .     . 

164 

151 

20.89 

130110 

157440 

144960 

Unknown 

171 

179 

18.86 

144117 

164160 

171840 

Clay      •     •     •     - 

165 

181 

17.86 

151629 

158400 

173760 

Whippoorwill 

162 

195 

17.98 

150621 

155520 

187200 

Groit     .... 



202 

193920 

Iron       .... 

194 

240 

186240 

230400 

New  Era   .     .     . 

223 

278 

11.49 

236545 

214080 

266880 

Catjang,  21295  D 

324 

311040 

Catjang,  25144 

491 

471360 

Small-seeded  varieties  like  New  Era  are  cheaper  on 
account  of  the  greater  number  of  seeds,  and  because  the 
percentage  of  broken  seeds  is  usually  less.  This  fact  is 
becoming  recognized  by  seedsmen,  and  therefore  a  slightly 
higher  price  is  asked  for  small-seeded  varieties.  One 
bushel  of  New  Era  contains  nearly  50  per  cent  more  seeds 
than  the  same  measure  of  Whippoorwill. 

622.  Viability.  —  Seed  not  properly  cured  or  stored 
quickly  loses  its  viability.  For  this  reason  a  germination 
test  is  always  advisable. 

Good  seed,  especially  of  small-seeded  varieties,  may  re- 
tain its  viability  for  several  years.  The  following  table 
gives  the  germination  of  seed  kept  for  various  periods  of 
time  in  a  storeroom  :  — 


510        FOEAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 


VIABILITY  OF  COWPEA  SEEDS  OP  STANDARD  VARIETIES  WHEI<! 
4,  7  AND  10  YEARS  OLD 


VARIETY 

SEED  4 
YEARS  OLD 

SEED  7 
YEARS  OLD 

SEED  10 
YEARS  OLD 

Whippoorwill 

Per  cent 

960 

Per  cent 

93  5 

Per  cent 
7Q  ^ 

New  Era      

730 

61  0 

18  0 

Iron 

60  5 

17  5 

14  ^ 

Clay  Crowder  .... 

42  0 

42  0 

90 

Clay 

380 

80 

1   r: 

Black       .     . 

79.0 

820 

Taylor     

500 

26  5 

00 

Blackeye 

22  0 

3  5 

00 

Red  Ripper       .     .     . 

35 

05 

00 

Groit 

00 

00 

0  0 

Michigan  Favorite    .... 
Extra  Early  Blackeye    .     .     . 

0.0 
0.0 

0.0 
0.0 

0.0 
0.0 

Ordinarily,  however,  seed  over  two  years  old  has  lost 
much  of  its  viability.  Seeds  which  have  been  wetted  or 
which  are  dead  become  duller  and  darker  in  color ;  there- 
fore uniformly  bright  colored  seeds  should  be  selected. 

623.  Root  system.  —  The  root  system  of  the  cowpea 
is  deep  for  an  annual,  there  being  a  well-developed  tap- 
root with  a  number  of  large  branch  roots.  These  roots 
spreading  horizontally  for  a  short  distance,  go  deeply 
into  the  subsoil,  thus  enabling  the  plant  to  draw  freely 
upon  the  minerals  and  water  below  the  reach  of  the  shal- 
lower-rooted crops. 

At  the  Storrs  Connecticut  Experiment  Station,  an 
investigation  was  conducted  upon  the  amount  of  stubble 
and  roots,  and  distribution  of  the  roots  of  the  cowpea. 
The  following  table  gives  the  amount  of  roots  at  different 
depths : — 


PLATE  VIII. 

Upper  Left.  SEEDS  OF  TEN  VARIETIES  OF  SOYBEANS  ; 

Center  Left.  SEEDS  OF  TEN  VARIETIES  OF  COWPEAS  ; 

Lower  Left.  SEEDS  OF  Six  VARIETIES  OF  VELVET-BEANS  ; 

Upper  Right.  POD  OF  FLORIDA  VELVET-BEAN  ; 

Lower  Right.  POD  OF  YOKOHAMA  BEAN. 


COWPEAS  511 

Stubble  and  first  6  in.  of  roots  912  Ib.  an  acre 

Second  6  in.  of  roots  (  6-12  in.) 45  Ib.  an  acre 

Third  6  in.  of  roots  (12-18  in.) 54  Ib.  an  acre 

Fourth  6  in.  of  roots  (18-24  in.) 34  Ib.  an  acre 

Fifth  6  in.  of  roots  (24-30  in.) 63  Ib.  an  acre 

Sixth  6  in.  of  roots  (30-36  in.) 59  Ib.  an  acre 

Seventh  6  in.  of  roots  (36-42  in.) 40  Ib.  an  acre 

At  the  Delaware  Experiment  Station,  it  was  found  that 
the  cowpea  did  not  have  more  than  10  per  cent  of  the  total 
weight  in  the  roots. 

624.  Disease  resistance.  —  In  the  United  States,  only 
two  diseases  of  the  cowpea  can  be  considered  serious ; 
namely,  rootknot,  caused   by  the   nematode    (Heterodera 
radidcola) ;    and  wilt,  caused  by  a  Fusarium  on  the  roots. 
The  Iron  variety  —  first  found  in  Barn  well  County,  South 
Carolina,  a  region  infested  by  these  diseases  —  is  almost 
perfectly  immune  to  both.     Orton   has  found  that   the 
immunizing   character    is    transmitted   to    crosses.     One 
such  cross,  the  Brabham,    whose  parents  are  Iron  and 
Whippoorwill,  has  become  very  popular  in  the  Atlantic 
coastal  region  of  the  Southern  States. 

Several  other  diseases  attack  the  cowpea,  —  among 
them  rust  (  Uromyces  phaseoli),  white  leaf -spot  (Amero- 
sporium  economicum) ,  red  leaf-spot  (Cercospora  cruenta) 
and  mildew  (Sphaerotheca  sp.).  Most  standard  varieties 
of  cowpeas  are  immune  to  rust,  and  the  other  diseases  are 
rarely  serious  on  the  best  varieties. 

625.  Insect  enemies.  —  The  leaves  of  cowpeas  are  more 
or  less  subject  to  attack  by  various  insects,  but  this  damage 
is  seldom  serious. 

The  seeds,  however,  are  much  subject  to  injury  by  two 
species  of  weevil  (Pachymerus  chinensis  and  P.  quadri- 
maculatus)  whose  habits  are  practically  identical.  The 
weevil  lays  its  eggs  on  the  pods  of  the  cowpea  in  the  field 


512         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

or  on  the  seeds  when  in  storage.  The  greatest  amount  of 
damage  is  done  when  the  peas  are  in  storage.  Each  female 
lays  as  a  rule  1  egg  on  a  seed,  but  this  does  not  deter  other 
females  from  doing  the  same.  The  larva  upon  hatching 
burrows  into  the  seed,  if  necessary  first  penetrating  the 
pod.  Under  very  favorable  conditions  the  whole  life 
cycle  from  egg  to  adult  may  take  place  in  18  days,  but 
under  ordinary  conditions  30  days  or  more  is  required. 
Under  indoor  conditions  at  Washington,  D.C.,  6  or  7 
broods  occur  in  a  year.  This  rapid  reproduction  continues 
until  all  the  peas  are  practically  all  destroyed. 

Fumigation  by  carbon  bisulfide  is  probably  the  best 
method  of  destroying  the  weevils  in  stored  seeds.  The 
seeds  are  put  in  an  airtight  bin  or  other  receptacle  and 
fumigated  48  hours,  using  2  to  3  pounds  of  carbon  bisul- 
fide for  each  1000  cubic  feet  of  space.  The  bisulfide 
is  poured  in  shallow  pans  or  dishes  on  top  of  the  seed,  and 
as  the  gas  volatilizes,  it  sinks  between  the  seeds,  as  it  is 
heavier  than  air.  When  the  fumigation  is  complete, 
the  seed  should  be  thoroughly  aired,  as  otherwise  the 
germination  may  be  affected. 


CHAPTER  XXII 
SOYBEANS 

THE  soybeai}  is  the  most  productive  as  regards  seed  of 
any  legume  adapted  to  temperate  climates.  This  fact 
alone  gives  the  crop  a  high  potential  importance  and  in- 
sures its  greater  agricultural  development  in  America.  At 
the  present  time  the  soybean  is  most  largely  grown  for 
roughage,  but  the  high  value  of  the  seed  for  human  food, 
as  well  as  animal  feed  and  for  oil,  will  in  all  probability 
result  in  its  being  more  and  more  grown  for  the  seed. 

626.  Agricultural  history.  — The  soybean,  or  soja-bean, 
is  a  plant  of  ancient  cultivation  in  Japan,  China,  Korea 
and  Manchuria,  and  to  a  much  less  extent  in  northern 
India  and  in  the  highlands  of  Java.  As  grown  in  these 
countries,  it  is  used  mainly  for  human  food,  the  beans 
being  prepared  in  various  ways.  A  large  amount  of  the 
beans  are  utilized  by  first  extracting  the  oil.  In  this 
case  the  bean  cake  is  used  both  for  cattle  food  and  as  a 
fertilizer. 

The  soybean  was  first  cultivated  in  the  United  States 
in  1829,  but  it  apparently  attracted  but  little  attention 
until  1854,  when  two  varieties  were  brought  back  from 
Japan  by  the  Perry  expedition.  Other  varieties  were 
introduced  from  time  to  time,  among  them  the  Mammoth, 
which  was  introduced  previous  to  1882.  It  is  largely  due 
to  the  introduction  of  this  variety  that  the  soybean  has 
become  an  important  crop  in  the  United  States,  as  a  very 
2  L  513 


514        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 


large  percentage  of  the  acreage  is  still  planted  to  this 
variety.  Between  the  years  1900  and  1910,  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  introduced  about  250 
varieties  from  all  portions  of  the  Orient.  In  Europe  a 
number  of  varieties  were  introduced  by  Habeflandt  of 
Vienna  in  1875,  who  experimented  with  them  for  a  num- 
ber of  years.  The  crop, 
however,  never  obtained 
any  great  importance  in 
Europe,  but  is  cultivated 
to  a  limited  extent,  espe- 
cially in  France  and 
Italy. 

.Beginning  with  1908, 
large  amounts  of  soy- 
beans were  exported  from 
Manchuria  to  Europe 
and  the  United  States. 
The  beans  were  utilized 
for  extracting  the  oil, 
which  was  used  for  vari- 
ous industrial  purposes, 
and  the  bean  cake  was 
used  as  cattle  food.  This 
trade  has  had  the  effect 

of  increasing  interest  in  the  soybean  crop,  especially  from 
the  standpoint  of  producing  seed. 

The  total  yield  of  seed  in  Manchuria  during  1909  is 
estimated  at  2,000,000  tons,  of  which  over  one-half  is 
exported  as  seed,  and  three-fourths  of  the  remainder  as 
oil  cake. 

627.  Botany.  —  The  erect  or  nearly  erect  form  of  the 
soybean,  as  cultivated  in  Japan  and  Manchuria,  is  not 


FIG.  60.  —  Soybean. 


SOYBEANS  515 

known  to  grow  wild.  The  nearest  wild  relative  of  the 
cultivated  plant  is  a  slender-stemmed  vining  plant  with 
smaller  flowers,  pods  and  seeds.  This  has  usually  been 
considered  a  distinct  species  under  the  name  of  Glycine 
ussuriensis,  and  occurs  wild  in  Japan,  Manchuria  and 
China.  The  Indian  varieties  of  soybeans  are  quite  inter- 
mediate between  this  wild  plant  and  the  Japanese  and 
Manchurian  varieties,  being  for  the  most  part  rather 
slender-stemmed,  vining,  small-flowered  and  small-seeded 
varieties.  A  critical  study  of  an  extensive  series  of 
varieties  shows  that  all  intergrades  between  the  wild 
plant  and  the  cultivated  erect  forms  exist,  so  that  there 
can  be  but  little  doubt  that  but  one  species  is  represented. 
The  usual  botanical  designation  for  this  species  is  Gly- 
cine soja,  but  under  recent  botanical  codes  it  must  be 
changed  to  Soja  max.  If  two  species  are  to  be  recognized, 
then  both  are  cultivated,  as  some  of  the  Indian  varieties 
are  much  more  like  the  wild  soybean  than  they  are  like 
the  erect  Japanese  varieties.  The  large  number  of  varieties 
of  the  soybean  and  the  great  range  of  differences  in  these 
varieties  indicate  a  very  ancient  cultivation. 

The  flowers  of  the  soybean  are  small,  white  or  purple, 
and  borne  on  short  axillary  racemes,  which  usually  bear 
eight  to  fifteen  flowers  in  a  cluster,  but  the  number  may  be 
as  high  as  thirty-five. 

The  pods  of  most  varieties  are  compressed,  though  some 
are  nearly  terete,  each  bearing  two  or  three  seeds,  or  rarely 
four.  The  pods  vary  in  length  according  to  variety  from 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  to  three  inches,  and  there  may 
be  considerable  variation  even  on  the  same  plant.  The 
pods  are  commonly  borne  in  clusters  of  three  to  five,  in 
extreme  cases  as  many  as  twelve.  On  single  plants. over 
400  pods  have  been  counted.  The  pods  are  gray  or  tawny 


516        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR    CULTURE 

or  sometimes  black.  Gray  pods  always  bear  gray  pubes- 
cence, while  the  tawny  pods  have  tawny  pubescence. 
Black  pods  may  have  either  color  as  to  pubescence. 

The  variation  in  the  seeds  of  the  soybean  is  very  great. 
Some  are  nearly  globose,  others  much  flattened,  but  the 
great  majority  are  elliptical  in  outline,  the  thickness 
less  than  the  breadth.  The  largest  seeded  sorts  contain 
about  2000  seeds  to  the  pound,  while  the  smallest  seeded 
contain  about  7000.  The  color  of  the  testa  shows  the  fol- 
lowing range  of  colors :  straw  yellow,  olive  yellow,  olive, 
green,  brown  and  black.  In  a  very  few  varieties,  the 
testa  may  be  bicolored.  Among  such  combinations  are 
green  or  yellow  with  a  saddle  of  black,  and  brown  and 
black  in  concentric  bands.  On  heterozygote  plants,  the 
seeds  are  often  irregularly  two-colored,  but  these  do  not 
breed  true.  The  embryo  or  germ  may  be  either  yellow 
or  green.  It  is  green  in  all  the  green-seeded  varieties  and 
in  some  of  the  black-seeded  ones,  in  all  others  being 
yellow. 

628.  Description.  —  The  soybean  is  an  annual,  and 
strictly  determinate  in  growth;  that  is,  the  whole  plant 
reaches  maturity  as  the  pods  ripen,  and  no  further  growth 
takes  place.  ?  Most  of  the  cultivated  varieties  are  erect 
and  branching,  the  main  axis  being  well  defined.  With 
few  exceptions  such  varieties  have  decidedly  stout  stems. 
In  other  sorts  the  stems  and  branches  are  somewhat 
twining  and  weak,  so  that  the  plant  is  more  or  less  procum- 
bent. All  intergrades  between  these  types  of  growth 
exist,  some  sorts  being  slender-stemmed  with  the  branches 
more  or  less  twining.  The  height  of  the  stem  varies  accord- 
ing to  the  variety  from  six  inches  to  six  feet.  In  general, 
the  earliest  varieties  are  the  most  dwarfed. 

All  soybeans  are  hairy  plants,  no  smooth  variety  being 


SOYBEANS  517 

known.  The  hairiness  occurs  in  two  colors,  grayish  and 
tawny.  The  tawny  pubescence  is  nearly  always  associated 
with  dark-colored  pods  and  usually  with  purple  flowers. 
The  leaves  of  the  soybean  show  large  variation  in  size, 
shape  and  color.  The  leaflets  are  usually  ovate-lanceo- 
late, but  in  some  varieties  are  narrowly  lanceolate  or 
almost  linear.  In  broad-leaved  varieties  they  may  be 
nearly  orbicular.  With  few  exceptions  the  leaves  of  the 
soybeans  begin  to  turn  yellow  as  the  pods  ripen  and  usually 
all  have  fallen  by  the  time  the  pods  are  mature.  In  a  few 
sorts,  however,  the  leaves  persist  and  retain  their  green 
color  even  after  all  of  the  pods  have  ripened. 

629.  Soil   adaptations.  —  Soybeans   are  not  particular 
in  their  soil  requirements.     Even  on  poor  soil  they  will 
make  a  satisfactory  growth,  provided  they  are  inoculated, 
but  on  such  soils  the  growth  is  rarely  as  good  as  is  made 
by  cowpeas.     They  succeed  best  on  loams  and  clays,  but 
the  Mammoth  variety  also  does  admirably  on  sandy  or 
silty  soils.     They  are  not  sensitive  to  an  excess  of  moisture, 

.  although  they  will  not  thrive  in  a  soil  where  water  stands 
for  any  considerable  length  of  time.  In  marked  contrast 
to  their  ability  to  grow  on  wet  soils  is  the  fact  that  the 
soybean  is  also  decidedly  drought  resistant,  much  more 
so  than  cowpeas.  Unfortunately,  however,  rabbits  are 
very  fond  of  the  soybean,  and  in  the  semi-arid  regions  the 
danger  of  damage  from  these  animals  is  a  serious  dis- 
advantage. 

630.  Climatic  adaptations.  —  In  the  United  States,  soy- 
beans show  almost  exactly  the  same  range  of  climatic 
adaptation    as    varieties    of    corn.     Early    varieties    will 
mature  northward  wherever   corn  will   mature.     South- 
ward, however,  the  soybean  does  not  seem  to  be  adapted 
to  as  extreme  climatic  conditions  as  the  corn ;  for  example, 


518        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

under  Florida  conditions,  soybeans  seldom  grow  normally  c 
In  southern  Louisiana  it  is  a  common  phenomenon  for 
the  Mammoth  soybean  to  make  a  satisfactory  growth, 
but  the  pods  do  not  fill.  Some  very  late  varieties  tested 
at  Arlington  Farm,  Virginia,  failed  to  bloom  when  killed 
by  frost  at  the  end  of  150  days.  Such  varieties  were 
mainly  from  the  highlands  of  northern  India,  where  a 
much  longer  growing  season  occurs. 

Soybeans  will  withstand  considerable  frost,  both  when 
young  and  old.  Some  varieties  will  in  the  fall  withstand 
temperatures  as  low  as  27°  Fahrenheit  without  serious 
injury  to  the  leaves.  If  the  pods  are  fairly  well  filled 
before  a  killing  frost  occurs,  they  will  usually  ripen 
satisfactorily. 

631.  Importance.  —  The  soybean  has  been  slowly  but 
steadily  increasing  in  importance  in  America  during  the 
past  20  years.     Its  relative  importance  is  less  than  that 
of  either  the  field  pea  or  the  cowpea. 

632.  Desirable   characters  in   soybean  varieties.  —  As 
the  number  of  soybean  varieties  is  very  large,  and  as  new 
sorts  are  easily  secured  by  crossing,  the  most  desirable 
characters,  both  for  forage  and  for  seed-production,  need 
to  be  considered.     In  this  crop  as  in  others,  yield  is  the 
most  important  single  desideratum.     Secondary  consider- 
ations are  habit,  coarseness,  ability  to  hold  leaves,  color 
of  seed  and  ease  of  shattering. 

An  ideal  variety  for  forage  should  be  erect;  tall,  so  that 
the  pods  are  not  too  near  the  ground  ;  slender,  but  without 
tendency  to  lodge,  so  as  to  permit  easy  mowing;  leafy 
and  with  the  ability  to  retain  the  leaves  late;  yellow- 
seeded,  as  hogs  will  find  such  seeds  as  are  shattered  more 
readily ;  non-shattering,  a  character  more  common  in 
small-seeded  than  in  larger-seeded  varieties;  disease 


SOYBEANS  519 

resistant,  especially  to  nematodes  and  cowpea  wilt,  which 
seriously  affect  most  varieties  of  the  soybean. 

For  seed-production  alone,  percentage  of  oil  content 
is  second  in  importance  to  yield,  and  leanness  and  ability 
to  hold  leaves  of  practically  no  concern. 

633.  Commercial  varieties.  —  At  the  present  time  about 
fifteen  varieties  of  soybeans  are  handled  commercially 
by  seedsmen,  the  most  important  of  which  are  Mammoth, 
Hollybrook,  Haberlandt,  Medium  Yellow,  Guelph,  Ito 
San,  Wilson  and  Peking. 

Mammoth.  —  This  is  a  tall  late  variety,  under  average 
conditions  growing  from  three  to  five  feet  high,  and  strictly 
bushy  in  habit.  At  the  present  time  probably  two-thirds 
of  the  acreage  of  soybeans  of  the  United  States  is  devoted 
to  this  variety.  On  account  of  its  lateness,  it  will  not 
usually  mature  seed  north  of  the  District  of  Columbia  and 
Kentucky.  This  variety  was  introduced  prior  to  1882, 
but  there  is  no  record  as  to  its  exact  source.  The  seeds 
are  yellow,  one  pound  containing  about  2100.  The  pubes- 
cence is  gray,  and  the  flowers  are  white. 

Hollybrook.  —  The  Hollybrook  soybean  matures  15  to 
20  days  earlier  than  the  Mammoth.  The  plants  are  very 
compact,  the  pods  being  densely  crowded.  The  pubes- 
cence is  gray,  but  both  white  and  red-flowered  strains 
occur.  The  seeds  are  yellow,  very  much  like  Mammoth, 
2100  weighing  one  pound.  The  plants  seldom  grow  more 
than  three  feet  high,  and  the  pods  cover  the  stems  nearly 
to  the  ground.  The  Hollybrook  was  first  introduced 
about  1904. 

Haberlandt.  —  This  variety  matures  about  a  week  earlier 
than  the  Hollybrook.  It  is  a  more  bushy  and  spreading 
plant,  but  grows  to  nearly  the  same  height.  It  is  a 
heavy  yielder  of  seed,  and  also  a  good  hay  variety.  The 


520        FOE  AGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

pubescence  is  tawny,  and  both  purple-flowered  and  white- 
flowered  strains  occur.  The  seeds  are  straw  yellow  with 
a  brown  hilum,  one  pound  containing  about  2400.  The 
Haberlandt  variety  was  introduced  from  Pingyang, 
Korea,  in  1901. 

Medium  Yellow.  —  This  is  an  erect,  bushy,  heavy  seed- 
ing variety  growing  2|  to  3  feet  high,  and  requiring  about 
the  same  length  of  season  as  the  Haberlandt.  The  pubes- 
cence is  tawny,  and  the  flowers  either  purple  or  white. 
The  seeds  are  straw  yellow  with  a  pale  hilum,  one  pound 
containing  about  3500.  This  variety  was  introduced 
from  central  China  in  1901.  Some  seedsmen  advertise 
it  under  the  name  of  Mongol. 

Guelph.  —  This  variety  was  introduced  from  Japan  in 
1889  by  W.  P.  Brooks.  It  is  also  known  under  the 
names  of  Medium  Green  and  Medium  Early  Green. 
The  plants  are  stout  and  bushy,  growing  1J  to  2  feet  high. 
The  pubescence  is  tawny,  and  the  flowers  purple.  The 
whole  seed,  including  both  the  coat  and  the  germ,  is  green 
in  color.  One  pound  of  seed  contains  about  2600.  This 
variety  has  been  much  grown  in  the  Northern  States,  as  it 
requires  only  about  90  days  to  become  fully  mature. 

Ito  San.  —  This  variety  is  also  known  as  Japanese  pea, 
Early  White  and  Early  Yellow.  It  was  introduced 
from  Japan  by  C.  C.  Georgeson  in  1890,  but  apparently 
the  same  or  a  very  similar  variety  was  distributed 
by  the  United  States  Patent  Office  in  1853.  It  is 
a  bushy  variety  growing  2  to  2J  feet  high,  with  rather 
slender  stems,  and  on  this  account,  excellent  for  hay.  It 
becomes  fully  mature  in  about  one  hundred  days  after 
planting.  The  pubescence  is  tawny,  and  the  flowers 
purple.  The  seeds  are  rather  small,  straw  yellow  with  a 
pale  hilum,  but  with  a  brown  speck  near  the  micropyle. 


SOYBEANS  521 

by  which  this  variety  may  be  certainly  known.  One 
pound  contains  about  3200  seeds.  This  variety  has  been 
much  grown  in  the  Northern  States. 

Wilson.  —  This  variety  was  introduced  from  Newch- 
wang,  Manchuria,  in  1906.  It  is  a  tall,  slender  variety, 
growing  3  to  4  feet  high,  with  a  few  erect  branches,  and 
becoming  fully  mature  in  about  110  days.  On  account  of 
its  tall,  slender  height, -it  is  readily  harvested,  and  makes 
excellent  hay,  besides  being  a  heavy  seed  producer.  The 
pubescence  is  tawny,  and  the  flowers  either  purple  or  white. 
The  seeds  are  black,  with  a  yellow  germ,  one  pound  con- 
taining about  2400  seeds. 

Peking.  —  A  variety  introduced  from  Peking,  China, 
in  1907.  This  variety  is  characterized  by  its  dense  bushi- 
ness,  leanness  and  slender  stems,  growing  2J  to  3  feet 
high,  and  becomes  fully  mature  in  about  120  days.  The 
pubescence  is  tawny,  the  flowers  white,  the  seeds  black 
and  much  flattened,  with  a  yellow  germ.  One  pound  con- 
tains about  6300  seeds.  This  variety  is  one  of  the  most 
satisfactory  of  all,  both  for  hay  and  seed  production.  It 
is  rather  remarkable  among  soybean  varieties  as  being 
almost  completely  non-shattering. 

634.  Preparation  of  soil  and  cultivation.  —  The  seed 
bed  for  soybeans  should  receive  as  thorough  preparation 
as  land  for  corn.  This  preparation  should  consist  of  deep 
plowing  and  subsequent  working  with  disk  and  harrow 
until  a  firm  seed  bed,  with  the  upper  2  or  3  inches  loose 
and  mellow,  is  secured. 

Soybeans  germinate  in  a  very  few  days  under  proper 
soil  conditions,  and  cultivation  is  begun .  as  soon  as  the 
seedling  plants  appear.  The  cultivation  should  be  shallow, 
and  any  good  cultivator  may  be  used.  Soybeans  require 
about  the  same  number  of  cultivations  as  corn.  Level 


522 


FOEAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 


cultivation  is  preferable,  as  the  harvesting  can  be  more 
easily  done. 

635.  Rate  of  seeding.  —  The  quantity  of  seed  to  be 
sown  to  the  acre  will  vary  somewhat  according  to  the  size 
of  the  seed  and  the  use  of  the  crop.  With  rows  from  24  to 
36  inches  apart,  from  20  to  30  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre  is 
satisfactory.  When  sown  broadcast  for  hay,  from  one  to 
one  and  a  half  bushels  of  seed  is  required.  Few  rate  of 
seeding  experiments  have  been  reported,  but  the  following 
results  were  secured  at  the  Ohio  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station :  — 


TABLE  SHOWING  ACRE  YIELDS  OF  SOYBEAN  HAY  AND  SEEDS 
WHEN  PLANTED  AT  DIFFERENT  RATES 


RATE  OF 

SEEDING 

TO  THE 

ACRE 

WIDTH  OF 
Rows 

YIELD  TO  THE  ACRE 

Hay 

Thrashed  Grain 

1909 

1910 

1911 

1909 

1910 

1911 

Pounds 

I  nches 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

Bushels 

Bushels 

Bushels 

15 

28 

2480 

2685 

4510 

10.66 

18.91 

35.58 

30 

28 

3640 

2775 

4216 

16.58 

20.08 

33.78 

45 

28 

3760 

3010 

5040 

17.33 

21.00 

38.40 

60 

28 

3640 

3345 

4608 

16.08 

23.16 

36.35 

120 

8 

3080 

4300 

5393 

12.66 

15.42 

33.86 

636.  Time  of  seeding.  —  Soybeans  may  be  sown  at 
any  time  after  danger  of  severe  frosts  is  over.  The 
plants,  however,  grow  slowly  in  cool  weather  and  ordi- 
narily there  is  no  advantage  in  planting  them  earlier  than 
corn,  especially  late  varieties.  In  the  cotton  region,  two 
crops  of  the  early  and  medium  varieties  can  be  grown  in 
a  single  season  by  planting  the  first  early.  With  the 
very  earliest  varieties  this  can  also  be  accomplished  as  far 


SOYBEANS  523 

north  as  Maryland.     Generally  speaking,  June  1  is  about 
the  best  date  for  seeding. 

637.  Method   of   seeding.  —  The  method   of  planting 
will  depend  on  the  purpose  for  which  the  soybeans  are 
grown.     Soybeans  are  grown  either  in  cultivated  rows  or 
broadcasted.     The  former  method  is  preferable  in  weedy 
land  and  usually  gives  larger  yields  of  hay  and  practically 
always  of  seed.     The  general  practice  for  seed-production 
is  the  row  method,  while  for  hay  or  soiling,  drilling  or 
broadcasting  furnishes  a  forage  of  finer  texture. 

In  Manchuria  soybeans  are  usually  planted  in  rows 
17  inches  wide,  the  plants  about  2  inches  apart  in  the  row. 
With  rows  so  close  together,  hand  hoeing  is  necessary. 
In  the  United  States  the  rows  are  most  often  36  inches  wide, 
so  as  to  facilitate  easy  cultivation.  This  distance  is  not 
too  much  for  large  varieties  like  the  Mammoth.  In  the 
low,  poorly  drained  lands  of  eastern  North  Carolina,  the- 
rows  are  planted  four  feet  apart  and  on .  raised  beds,  to 
facilitate  drainage.  For  the  smaller,  earlier  varieties, 
rows  18  inches  apart  give  sufficient  room  for  the  plants 
to  develop  fully.  The  plants  of  different  varieties  range  in 
height  from  one  foot  or  less  to  five  feet  or  more,  so  the 
optimum  distance  apart  of  rows  is  thus  partly  a  matter 
of  variety  and  partly  one  of  the  culture  implement  to  be 
employed.  For  the  larger  varieties,  three-foot  rows  are 
very  satisfactory  with  plants  2  to  3  inches  apart  in  the 
rows. 

Soybeans  may  be  drilled  with  an  ordinary  wheat  drill, 
the  width  of  the  rows  adjusted  by  covering  the  feed  cups 
not  in  use.  Corn  planters  are  sometimes  used  in  planting 
soybeans,  as  most  of  the  modern  planters  have  special 
plates  for  drilling  beans. 

638.  Depth  of  planting.  —  The  depth  of  planting  soy- 


524        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 


bean  seed  is  very  important,  poor  stands  frequently  re- 
sulting from  too  deep  covering.  The  depth  should  not 
exceed  two  inches,  since  with  shallow  planting  chance  of 
failure  due  to  formation  of  a  soil  crust  is  lessened.  In  a 
test  under  favorable  conditions  with  the  Mammoth  and 
Peking  varieties,  100  seeds  each  were  planted  respectively 
1,  1J,  2,  2|,  3  and  4  inches  deep.  The  percentages  of  plants 
reaching  the  surface  one  week  after  planting  are  shown  in 
the  table :  — 

GERMINATION  OF  SOYBEANS  AT  DIFFERENT  DEPTHS  OF  PLANTING 


VARIETY 

PEK  CENT  GERMINATION  AT  DIFFERENT  DEPTHS 

1 
Inch 

U 

Inches 

2 
Inches 

2* 
Inches 

3 
Inches 

4 
Inches 

Mammoth 

100 

93 

98 

95 

92 

84 

Peking    .     .     . 

95 

97 

92 

92 

90 

86 

At  the  Tennessee  Experiment  Station,  it  was  found  that 
seed  of  the  Ito  San  variety  failed  to  reach  the  surface  when 
planted  6  inches  deep.  At  5  inches  the  stand  was  very 
poor,  but  it  was  apparently  perfect  at  any  depth  of  plant- 
ing between  1  and  4  inches. 

639.  Inoculation.  —  Natural  inoculation  now  occurs 
quite  generally  throughout  much  of  the  soybean  region 
in  southern  United  States.  In  localities,  however,  where 
this  crop  has  not  been  previously  grown  it  is  advisable 
to  inoculate. 

The  inoculation  of  the  soybean  by  means  of  artificial 
cultures  has  been  found  to  be  unusually  difficult,  the  rea- 
sons for  which  are  obscure.  In  soil  supplied  with  nitro- 
gen, the  plants  grow  fairly  well  without  nodules,  and 
according  to  Kirchner  nodules  were  not  detected  on  Euro- 


SOYBEANS 


525 


pean  grown  plants  dur- 
ing the  twenty  years 
after  the  crop  had  been 
introduced. 

Smith  and  Robinson 
at  the  Michigan  Agri- 
cultural Experiment 
Station  made  observa- 
tions on  the  influence 
of  nodules  on  the  roots 
upon  the  composition 
of  the  soybean.  The 
conclusion  of  two  years' 
work  was  that  the  nod- 
ules on  the  roots,  in  a 
fairly  fertile  soil,  may 
not  notably  increase  the 
yield,  but  do  increase 
the  relative  and  absolute 
amounts  of  nitrogen  in  the  plants.  In  the  following  table 
is  given  the  composition  of  the  dry  matter  of  leaves,  stems 
and  roots  of  inoculated  and  not  inoculated  soybeans  :  — 


FIG.  61.  —  Roots    of    soybean,    showing 
nodules. 


DRY 

MATTER 

PRO- 
TEIN 

ASH 

NITRO- 
GEN 

PHOSPHORIC 
ACID 

POT- 
ASH 

Grains 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

Inoculated  :  — 

Leaves     . 

205.98 

22.71 

11.26 

3.63 

.72 

2.27 

Stems      .     .     . 

284.37 

11.54 

7.02 

1.85 

.60 

2.21 

Roots 

55.2 

5.72 

7.14 

.91 

.40 

1.29 

Not  inoculated  :  — 

Leaves     . 

198.92 

17.89 

13.86 

2.86 

.65 

2.29 

Stems      .     .     . 

247.48 

8.35 

7.36 

1.33 

.68 

2.07 

Roots      .     .     . 

49.00 

6.60 

12.08 

1.05 

.39 

1.27 

526         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 


640.  Life  period.  —  The  length  of  time  required  by  the 
soybean  plant  from  germination  to  maturity  varies 
greatly  with  the  variety  and  with  the  time  of  planting. 
Early  plantings  require  a  much  longer  time  to  mature  than 
late  plantings,  but  the  same  varieties  do  not  behave 
consistently  in  this  respect.  With  a  single  variety,  Haber- 
landt  found  that  the  life  period  at  Vienna,  Austria,  varied 
from  182  days  when  planted  March  31  to  139  days  if 
planted  June  9,  there  being  almost  a  perfectly  regular 
gradation  for  intermediate  planting. 

Extensive  experiments  of  this  kind  have  been  conducted 
by  Mooers  at  the  Tennessee  Experiment  Station.  Some 
of  his  results  are  shown  in  the  table :  — 

TABLE  SHOWING  RELATIONS   BETWEEN  DATE  OF  PLANTING  AND 
LIFE  PERIOD  IN  SOYBEAN 


VARIETY 

1907 

1908- 

Date 
Planted 

Date 
Harvested 

Life 
Period 
Days 

Date 
Planted 

Date 
Harvested 

Life 
Period 
Days 

Mammoth 

Apr.     3 

Oct.     5 

186 

Apr.     2 

Oct.     7 

188 

Apr.  15 

Oct.     5 

173 

Apr.  14 

Oct.     7 

179 

Apr.  30 

Oct.     6 

160 

May    1 

Oct.     7 

159 

May  15 

Oct.     9 

146 

May  15 

Oct.     7 

145 

June    5 

Oct.   12 

129 

June    1 

Oct.     7 

128 

June  17 

Oct.  22 

127 

June  17 

Oct.   21 

126 

June  29 

Oct.  22 

113 

July     1 

Oct.  21 

112 

July  15 

Oct.  28 

105 

July  17 

Oct.  24 

100 

Ito  San 

Apr.     3 

Aug.    9 

114 

Apr.     2 

July  25 

114 

Apr.  15 

Aug.    9 

106 

Apr.  14 

July  29 

106 

Apr.  30 

Aug.    9 

96 

May    1 

Aug.    5 

96 

May  15 

Aug.  17 

92 

May  14 

Aug.  15 

92 

June    5 

Sept.    3 

87 

June    1 

Aug.  27 

87 

June  17 

Sept.  18 

85 

June  17 

Sept.  10 

85 

June  29 

Sept.  18 

80 

July     1 

Sept.  19 

80 

July  15 

Oct.     9 

82 

July  16 

Oct.     6 

82 

Aug.    6 

Oct.  29 

85 

Aug.     1 

Oct.  24 

85 

SOYBEANS  527 

Ordinarily  it  is  not  advisable  to  sow  soybeans  until 
about  the  time  for  planting  corn,  as  soybean  plants  grow 
but  slowly  during  cool  weather.  Of  330  varieties  grown 
at  Arlington  Farm,  Virginia,  2  were  classified  as  very 
early,  maturing  in  80  to  90  days ;  12  as  early,  maturing 
in  90  to  100  days ;  40  as  medium  early,  maturing  in  100 
to  110  days  ;  76  as  medium,  maturing  in  110  to  120  days ; 
85  as  medium  late,  maturing  in  120  to  130  days ;  55  as 
late,  maturing  in  130  to  150  days,  and  60  as  very  late, 
requiring  more  than  150  days. 

On  account  of  self-pollination,  soybean  varieties  show 
but  little  variability.  Of  such  important  varieties  as  the 
Mammoth,  Ito  San  and  Guelph,  which  have  been  grown 
in  the  United  States  for  many  years,  seed  from  different 
sources  planted  at  the  same  place  gave  results  which 
show  that  no  change  in  the  life  period  has  taken  place, 
whether  the  seed  was  grown  in  the  North  or  in  the  South. 
In  a  few  varieties,  however,  there  is  satisfactory  evidence 
to  show  that  the  life  period  of  a  variety  changes,  becoming 
gradually  shorter  when  grown  northward,  and  gradually 
longer  when  grown  southward. 

641.  Time  to  cut  for  hay.  —  Soybeans  may  be  cut  for 
hay  at  any  time  from  the  setting  of  the  seed  until  the 
leaves  begin  to  turn  yellow.  The  crop  is  best  fitted  for 
hay  when  the  pods  are  well  formed.  If  allowed  to  stand 
much  longer  than  this  the  stems  rapidly  become  woody 
and  the  percentage  of  protein  lower ;  and  if  left  too  long, 
there  is  much  loss  in  leaves.  In  the  development  of  the 
plant  from  bloom  to  maturity  there  is  a  marked  increase 
in  the  percentage  of  fat,  little  change  in  that  of  carbohy- 
drates, but  a  decided  diminution  in  the  percentage  of 
protein.  The  following  table  shows  the  variation  in  the 
composition  of  soybean  hay  of  the  Mammoth  variety  at 
different  stages  of  development :  — 


528        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 


TABLE  SHOWING  CHEMICAL  ANALYSES  OF  MAMMOTH  SOYBEAN 
HAY  CUT  AT  FOUR  DIFFERENT  STAGES 


STAGE  WHEN 

WATER 

PROTEIN 

FAT 

NITROGEN 
FREE 

FIBER 

ASH 

EXTRACT 

Full  bloom    . 

5.11 

19.22 

1.45 

38.56 

26.50 

9.16 

First  pods      .     .     . 

5.35 

12.72 

1.06 

42.50 

30.82 

7.55 

Seed  £  grown     .     . 

5.40 

10.31 

2.34 

44.73 

30.45 

6.77 

Seed  full  grown  .     . 

5.30 

15.94 

7.83 

38.76 

25.97 

6.20 

642.  Hay  yields.  —  Yields  of  soybean  hay  range  from  1 
to  3  tons  and  occasionally  4  tons  to  the  acre.  The  average 
yield  is  about  2  tons  to  the  acre :  — 

TABLE  SHOWING  YIELDS  OF  SOYBEAN  HAY  AT  VARIOUS  AMERI- 
CAN EXPERIMENT  STATIONS,  IN  POUNDS  TO  THE  ACRE 


VARIETY 

DELAWARE 

TENNESSEE 

OHIO 

KANSAS 

VIRGINIA 

Mammoth 

5660 

5700 

Hollybrook 

4500 

5220 

5900 

Guelph   . 

4350 

4560 

1717 

3260 

Ito  San  .     .     . 

3200 

4340 

1725 

4739 

5120 

Haberlandt 

5800 

,5400 

2431 

Med.  Yellow   . 

4500 

4560 

1840 

3595 

4600 

Wilson    .     .     . 

5200 

Peking   .     .     . 

4830 

Ebony    .     .     . 

3800 

1860 

Cloud     .     .     . 

6100 

2170 

643.  Fertilizers.  —  On  land  of  moderate  fertility,  com- 
mercial fertilizers  do  not  seem  to  show  marked  results  in 
the  yield  of  soybeans.  On  sandy  soil  or  soils  in  poor  con- 
dition, experiments  show  that  a  dressing  of  stable  manure 
or  of  acid  phosphate  and  potash  gives  the  best  results. 


SOYBEANS  529 

At  the  Delaware  Experiment  Station,  an  application  of  250 
to  350  pounds  to  the  acre  of  a  mixture  of  400  pounds  of  acid 
phosphate  and  100  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash  is  recom- 
mended. Good  results  were  obtained  at  the  Tennessee 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station  by  using  acid  phosphate 
alone  at  the  rate  of  200  to  300  pounds  to  the  acre.  In  using 
commercial  fertilizer,  it  is  well  to  apply  broadcast  before 
the  soybeans  are  planted. 

Lime  as  shown  especially  by  Mooers'  experiments  in 
Tennessee  almost  invariably  gives  pronouncedly  larger 
yields. 

644.  Soybean  mixtures.  —  Soybeans  are  well  adapted 
to  planting  in  mixture  with  other  farm  crops.  Results  of 
experiments  along  this  line  indicate  that  a  larger  yield  of 
hay  can  be  secured  and  also  a  greater  variety  of  forage. 
The  chief  advantage,  perhaps,  is  in  the  varied  ration. 

Soybeans  and  corn.  —  Soybeans  are  more  generally 
grown  with  corn  than  with  any  other  crop.  They  may  be 
planted  in  the  same  hills  with  corn,  in  alternate  hills  with 
the  corn  in  the  same  row,  in  alternate  rows  of  each  or  two 
rows  of  each.  Rarely  they  are  broadcasted  in  mixture. 
When  soybeans  are  grown  with  corn  by  these  methods,  the 
crop  may  be  fed  on  the  land  to  hogs  or  harvested  for  si- 
lage. The  early  and  medium  varieties  of  soybeans  may 
be  planted  in  between  the  corn  rows  at  the  time  of  the 
last  cultivation. 

Soybeans  and  cowpeas.  —  A  mixture  of .  soybeans  and 
cowpeas  is  more  easily  harvested  and  cured  than  cow- 
peas  alone.  In  such  mixtures,  tall  strong-growing  varie- 
ties of  soybeans  are  best  as  they  tend  to  support  the 
vining  cowpeas.  Care  should  be  taken  to  select  varieties 
of  soybeans  and  cowpeas  that  mature  about  the  same 
time.  In  sowing  such  a  mixture,  it  is  better  to  use  a  larger 

2M 


530         FOE  AGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR    CULTURE 

proportion  of  soybeans.  One  bushel  of  soybeans  to  one- 
half  bushel  of  cowpeas  gives  excellent  results  if  broad- 
casted, but  half  this  quantity  is  sufficient  if  planted  in 
three-foot  rows.  The  time  for  cutting  for  hay  is  deter- 
mined primarily  by  the  soybeans,  as  cowpeas  can  be  cut 
for  hay  over  a  much  longer  period  than  the  soybeans. 

Soybeans  and  sorghums.  —  Soybeans  may  be  grown 
very  satisfactorily  for  hay  or  silage  in  a  mixture  with 
sorghum.  The  tall-growing  vining  varieties  are  best, 
and  either  Amber  or  Orange  sorghum  may  be  used.  This 
mixture  is  most  satisfactory  in  cultivated  rows,  as  the 
sorghum  is  apt  to  choke  out  the  soybeans  when  broad- 
casted, unless  the  sorghum  is  planted  thinly. 

Soybeans  and  Johnson-grass.  —  Johnson-grass  as  well  as 
Sudan-grass  is  excellent  for  growing  in  mixtures  with 
soybeans.  Not  only  are  better  yields  obtained  with  these 
mixtures  but  also  the  quality  of  the  hay  is  improved. 
Twining  varieties  of  soybeans  have  a  distinct  advantage 
for  growing  with  these  grasses. 

Soybeans  and  millet.  —  Soybeans  and  millet  are  not 
to  be  recommended  as  a  mixture.  The  millet  matures 
too  early  for  any  of  the  good  hay  varieties  of  soybeans. 

645.  Silage.  —  Soybeans    may    be    very    satisfactorily 
used  for   silage,  the   best   results  being   obtained   when 
mixed  with  corn  or   sorghum.      The   soybeans  may  be 
grown  either  in  combination  with  the  corn  or  the  sorghum, 
but  it  seems  preferable  to  grow  them  separately  and  to 
mix  them  while  cutting  for  the  silo. 

646.  Rotations.  —  In  the  South  soybeans  are  adapted 
to  practically  the  same  place  in  rotations  as  are  cowpeas. 
In  Tennessee  and  North  Carolina,  a  soybean  crop  is  often 
grown  between  two  wheat  crops,  and  in  other  parts  of 
the  South,  between  two  oat  crops.     In  such  cases  medium 


SOYBEANS  531 

early  varieties  are  preferable.  Where  a  whole  season  can 
be  devoted  to  soybeans  in  the  South,  two  crops  of  early 
varieties  can  be  grown  in  place  of  one  crop  of  a  late  variety. 
Especially  where  seed-production  is  the  object,  much  larger 
yields  can  be  obtained  by  this  practice.  In  the  North, 
soybeans  generally  occupy  the  same  place  in  rotation  as 
oats,  the  principal  objection  being  that  the.  harvesting  of 
the  soybeans  presses  very  closely  on  the  seeding  time  for 
wheat. 

647.  Feeding  value  of  soybean  hay.  —  At  the  Tennessee 
Experiment  Station,  dairy  cows  were  fed  soybean  hay  in 
comparison  with  alfalfa  hay,  and  soybean  straw  in  compari- 
son with  corn  stover.     Judging  by  the  amount  of  milk 
and  butter  fat  obtained,  the  data  show  a  slight  superiority 
of   soybean   hay   alone   over    alfalfa    hay    alone.      The 
soybean  straw  alone  produced   12  per   cent  more  milk 
and  14  per  cent  more  butter  fat  than  the  corn  stover 
alone. 

648.  Seed-production.  —  The  character  of  growth,  the 
uniform  maturing  habit  of   the  soybean  and  the  large 
yield  of  grain  recommend  the  plant  for  seed-production. 
Tall  varieties  that  do  not  branch  nor  bear  pods  close  to 
the  ground  are  most  desirable,  as  they  are  more  easily 
harvested. 

When  grown  for  grain  alone,  soybeans  should  be  allowed 
to  develop  fully.  This  stage  of  maturity  is  indicated  in 
the  case  of  most  varieties  when  all  of  the  leaves  have 
fallen.  The  Guelph  and  a  few  varieties  not  on  the  market 
retain  the  leaves  late  and  much  seed  would  be  lost  by 
shattering  if  the  harvesting  were  not  done  earlier.  Soy- 
beans may  be  also  harvested  for  grain  when  the  leaves  first 
begin  to  fall.  If  cut  at  this  stage  practically  as  much 
seed  is  saved  as  when  the  plants  are  allowed  to  mature, 


532        FOE  AGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR    CULTURE 

and  the  straw  obtained  is  a  much  better  feed.  The  plants 
should  be  allowed  to  become  thoroughly  dry  after  cutting. 
When  ready  to  bunch  and  put  into  shocks,  soybeans 
should  be  a  little  damp,  as  some  shattering  will  occur  if 
handled  when  very  dry. 

One  of  the  chief  difficulties  in  growing  soybeans  for 
seed  has  been  the' harvesting.  The  small  early  varieties 
can  be  harvested  only  with  a  mowing  machine,  or  a  bean 
harvester  or  by  hand.  For  harvesting  many  of  the  later 
and  more  erect  growing  varieties,  a  mower  with  a  bunch- 
ing attachment  or  a  self-rake  reaper  is  better  adapted. 
The  self-binder  has  been  found  the  most  satisfactory 
machine  to  use  with  tall  varieties. 

Thrashing  is  most  satisfactorily  done  in  the  field  with- 
out previously  stacking  if  conditions  will  permit.  Soy- 
beans may  be  thrashed  with  an  ordinary  grain  separator 
if  necessary  adjustments  are  made,  otherwise  a  large  per 
cent  of  the  beans  will  be  cracked  or  split.  The  cylinder 
should  be  run  at  about  one-half  the  speed  used  in  thrash- 
ing grain,  but  at  the  same  time  maintaining  the  usual 
rate  for  the  rest  of  the  machine.  Some  of  the  concaves 
should  be  removed  or  a  special  set  of  thin  concaves  should 
be  used.  The  ordinary  wheat  separators  are  now  manu- 
factured provided  with  a  pea  and  bean  hulling  attachment 
which  is  said  to  do  satisfactory  work.  Special  pea  and 
bean  separators  are  now  on  the  market  which  not  only 
do  clean  hulling,  but  split  none  of  the  beans.  Soybeans 
cannot  be  satisfactorily  thrashed  unless  thoroughly  dry, 
for  when  slightly  damp  the  pods  are  tough,  and  much  of 
the  seed  remains  unthrashed. 

Special  care  is  required  in  storing  soybean  seed  to 
prevent  heating,  which  will  ruin  the  beans  as  far  as  germi- 
nation is  concerned.  The  seed  should  be  thoroughly 


SOYBEANS  533 

dry  when  placed  in  storage  or  else  placed  where  good 
ventilation  is  afforded  and  the  seed  not  bulked  together 
in  large  quantities.  Under  whatever  conditions  the  seed 
may  be  stored,  it  should  be  examined  occasionally  to  detect 
any  tendency  to  heat.  If  signs  of  heating  are  found,  the 
seed  should  be  removed  at  once  and  spread  out  until  per- 
fectly dry. 

649.  Pollination.  —  The  soybean  flower   is   completely 
self-fertile,  bagged  plants  setting  pods  as  perfectly  as  those 
exposed.     The  flowers  are  much  visited  by  bees,  which 
seek  principally  the  pollen,  as  the  soybean  flower  secretes 
but  little  nectar.     Pollination  occurs  even  before  the  flower 
opens,  but  nevertheless  occasional  cross-pollinations  occur 
where  different  varieties  are  grown  in  close  proximity. 
Such  natural  hybrids  can  often  be  detected  by  the  fact 
that  the  seeds  of  heterozygote  plants  present  queer  combi- 
nations of  color,  such   as   smoky   green,  smoky   yellow, 
brown,  and  yellow  and  black  banded.     In  the  course  of 
varietal  trials  at  Arlington  Farm,  Virginia,  extending  over 
five  years,  many  such  natural  hybrids  were  secured,  and 
similar    crosses    occurred    at    the    Kansas    Experiment 
Station. 

650.  Seed  yield.  —  With  regard  to  the  seed  yield  of  the 
soybean,   there  is   considerable  variation  in  the  figures 
given.     When  grown  alone  for  seed,  the  best  varieties 
under  proper  culture  yield  from  30  to  40  bushels  of  seed 
to  the  acre.     A  maximum  yield  of  50  bushels  to  the  acre 
has  been  reported  from  North  Carolina.     According  to 
various  authorities,  the  yields  in  Manchuria  range  from 
about  1000  pounds  to  the  acre  on  very  poor  soil  up  to  about 
1800  pounds  to  the  acre  on  good  soil. 

In  the  United  States,  yields  have  been  reported  by 
various  investigators  as  follows  :  - 


534        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 


TABLE  SHOWING  ACRE  YIELD  IN  BUSHELS  OF  SOYBEAN  SEED 
AT  VARIOUS  EXPERIMENT  STATIONS 


^ 

o 

VARIETY 

I 

-  o 

! 

§ 

P 

LAWARE 

3 

I 

» 

I 
•< 

a 

[RGINIA 

1 

3 

£ 

M 

S 

1-1 

OH 

> 

£ 

^ 

O 

Mammoth        .     .  '  .     . 

18.0 

23.9 

15.26 

Hollybrook      .... 

23.0 

22.9 

16.2 

29.2 

12.8 

11.4 

Guelph        

18.7 

16.5 

15.2 

22.38 

16.16 

Ito  San 

13.3 

20.2 

8.0 

21.9 

24.7 

18.43 

Haberlandt      .... 

23.0 

25.7 

14.0 

23.3 

18.33 

Med.  Yellow   .... 

23.2 

25.9 

26.9 

18.1 

17.2 

Wilson         

18.2 

10.2 

32.2 

20.1 

Peking    

23.4 

32.7 

15.00 

Ebony    

15.7 

25.0 

10.0 

25.2 

Chernie       .     .          .     . 

23.5 

651.  Seeds.  —  Soybean  seeds  weigh  about  60  pounds 
to  the  bushel  and  this  weight  is  recognized  as  standard 
in  most  states.  The  size  of  the  seeds  varies  greatly, 
as  shown  in  the  following  table  :  — 

TABLE  SHOWING   NUMBER  OF   SOYBEAN  SEEDS   TO  THE   POUND 
AND  TO  THE  BUSHEL  IN  TEN  VARIETIES 


VARIETY 

NUMBER  OP  SEEDS 

VARIETY 

NUMBER  OF  SEEDS 

One 
pound 

One 

bushel 

One 

pound 

One 
bushel 

Mammoth 

2144 

128640 

Ito  San      .     . 

3232 

193920 

Hollybrook 
Haberlandt 

2144 
2400 

128640 
144000 

Ebony       .     . 
Med.  Yellow 

3240 
3552 

194400 
213120 

Wilson    .     .     : 

2400 

144000 

Wisconsin 

black      .     . 

5104 

306240 

Guelph  .     .     . 

2624 

157440 

Peking 

6388 

383280 

SOYBEANS 


535 


The  seeds  do  not  retain  their  viability  well,  and  it  is  not 
advisable  to  sow  seed  two  years  old  without  previously 
testing.  Unless  care  is  exercised  in  properly  curing  and 
storing,  soybean  seeds  are  apt  to  heat  and  thus  quickly 
have  their  viability  destroyed.  A  small  percentage  of  the 
seed  will  under  favorable  conditions  retain  it's  viability 
four  or  five  years,  and  this  has  been  found  to  vary  accord- 
ing to  variety,  as  shown  in  the  table :  — 

VIABILITY  OF  SOYBEAN  SEEDS 


VARIETY 

SEED  COLOR 

1  YEAR 
OLD 

2  YEAR 
OLD 

4  YEAR 
OLD 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Per  cent 

Shanghai     .... 

Black 

99.0 

93.0 

43.5 

Chernie      .... 

Black 

94.0 

76.5 

46.5 

Baird                     .     . 

Brown 

97.0 

88.0 

24.5 

Fairchild    .... 

Black 

95.5 

84.5 

20.0 

Jet 

Black 

92.5 

60.0 

19.5 

Ebony    

Black 

94.0 

71.5 

4.0 

Tasking      .... 

Green 

90.5 

81.5 

3.0 

Guelph       .... 

Green 

97.5 

86.5 

1.5 

Brownie      .... 

Brown 

90.5 

67.0 

1.5 

Ito  San       .... 

Straw  Yellow 

100.0 

83.0 

2.5 

Haberlandt     .     .     . 

Straw  Yellow 

76.0 

2.5 

0.0 

Mammoth       .     .     . 

Straw  Yellow 

77.0 

32.5 

0.5 

Weevils  rarely  injure  soybean  seeds,  but  under  excep- 
tional circumstances  have  been  known  to  destroy  them. 
This  relative  immunity  to  weevil  injury  is  important, 
especially  in  the  South. 

652.  Pests.  —  Soybeans  are  troubled  by  few  serious 
enemies.  On  the  whole,  rabbits  are  most  troublesome, 
as  they  are  extravagantly  fond  of  the  herbage,  and  where 
they  are  abundant  soybean  culture  is  practically  impos- 


536        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 

sible.  At  the  Tennessee  Experimental  Substation  at 
Jackson,  rabbit  injury  was  much  reduced  by  using 
scarecrows,  to  each  of  which  a  lantern  was  hung  at 
night. 

Rootknot  caused  by  a  nematode  ( Heterodera  radicicola) 
often  injures  soybeans  considerably,  but  more  damage  is 
caused  by  cowpea  wilt,  due  to  a  Fusarium. 

Caterpillars  sometimes  eat  the  leaves,  but  the  loss 
from  such  insects  is  seldom  serious. 

On  the  whole  it  may  be  said  that  no  insect  or  fungus 
pest  has  yet  assumed  any  great  economic  importance  in 
connection  with  the  culture  of  the  soybean. 

653.  Breeding.  —  The  soybean  lends  itself  readily  to 
improvement,  and  considerable  work  in  breeding  is  being 
carried  on  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, the  Tennessee  Experiment  Station  and  the  Ohio  Ex- 
periment Station.     The  Ohio  Station  is  testing  individual 
plants  in  duplicate  plant-row  work  in  much  the  same  way 
that  it  is  testing  ears  of  corn  and  is  finding  decided  differ- 
ences in  yield  of  seed  and  forage,  in  tendency  to  shatter 
and  in  habits  of  growth.     The  Tennessee  Station  is  con- 
ducting selection  work  with  a  number  of  varieties  and  has 
found  considerable  variation  in  maturity,  habit  of  growth 
and  plant  characters  within  the  same  varieties,  so  that 
several  strains  of  the  same  variety  are  under  test.     The 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  has  done  a  very 
considerable  amount  of  work  toward  the  improvement 
of    the   soybean    by  selection   and  hybridization.      The 
results    of    the    breeding    work    thus   far   indicate   that 
it  is  easily  possible  to  improve  the  varieties  now  on  the 
market. 

654.  Soybeans    and    cowpeas    compared.  —  Inasmuch 
as  soybeans  are  adapted  to  so  nearly  the  same  uses  and 


SOYBEANS  537 

same  place  in  farm  rotation  as  the  cowpea,  an  agronomic 
comparison  of  the  two  crops  has  often  been  made. 

The  soybean  is  determinate  in  growth  ;  that  is,  it  reaches 
a  definite  size  and  matures.  Nearly  all  varieties  of  cow- 
peas,  on  the  other  hand,  are  indeterminate,  continuing 
growth  until  killed  by  frost.  With  the  exception  of  a 
few  varieties,  the  soybean  does  not  vine,  but  grows  erect  or 
nearly  erect.  Cowpeas,  on  the  other  hand,  are  viny  plants, 
and  therefore  more  difficult  to  harvest.  Soybeans  mature 
all  their  pods  at  one  time.  Cowpeas  continue  to  produce 
green  pods  as  long  as  the  plant  lives. 

Soybeans  will  withstand  rather  heavy  frosts,  both  in 
the  spring,  when  young,  and  in  the  fall,  when  nearly 
mature,  while  the  same  frosts  are  fatal  to  cowpeas.  They 
are  more  drought  resistant  than  cowpeas,  and  in  a  dry 
season  will  give  much  greater  yields ;  they  will  also  with- 
stand excessive  moisture  much  better. 

For  green  manuring  or  soil  improving,  the  cowpea  is 
far  more  valuable  than  the  soybean,  as  it  will  smother 
weeds  much  more  successfully. 

The  value  of  the  hay  of  the  two  plants  is  nearly  the 
same.  There  is  frequently  doubt  as  to  which  is  the  more 
desirable  to  grow.  On  relatively  poor  soil  or  when  broad- 
casted, cowpeas  are  always  preferable.  When  cultivated, 
the  soybean  will  yield  the  greater  return,  and  if  cut  late, 
the  hay  is  more  easily  cured. 

For  growing  with  corn  or  sorghum  for  hay  or  silage  the 
cowpep  Is  generally  preferable  to  the  soybean. 

The  feeding  value  of  an  acre  of  soybeans  for  beef  cattle 
was  found  by  the  Tennessee  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  to  be  about  50  per  cent  greater  than  that  of  cow- 
peas  grown  on  an  adjoining  acre.  This  was  also  approxi- 
mately the  difference  in  yield  of  the  two  crops. 


538        FORAGE   PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 

As  a  grain  producer  the  soybean  is  in  every  way  prefer- 
able to  the  cowpea,  as  it  produces  larger  yields  of  richer 
grain  and  can  be  harvested  much  more  easily. 

The  soybean,  therefore,  is  to  be  recommended  above 
the  cowpea  where  intensive  rather  than  extensive  farming 
is  practicable  and  desirable. 


CHAPTER   XXIII 
OTHER  HOT-SEASON  ANNUAL  LEGUMES 

THERE  are  numerous  tropical  and  subtropical  legumes 
well  adapted  to  culture  in  the  Southern  States.  None  of 
these  are  of  equal  importance  to  the  cowpea  and  the  soy- 
bean, but  several  of  them  have  high  value  for  particular 
conditions.  Among  these  are  Japan  clover,  velvet-bean 
and  beggar-weed.  Others  such  as  bonavist,  guar,  mung 
and  related  beans  can  hardly  compete  with  the  cowpea, 
although  there  is  need  of  much  further  experimentation 
with  these  crops  before  their  value  can  be  clearly 
determined. 

LESPEDEZA  OR  JAPAN  CLOVER  (Lespedezci  striato) 

655.  Description.  —  Lespedeza  or  Japan  clover  is  a 
native  of  eastern  Asia,  occurring  in  Japan,  Korea,  Man- 
churia, Mongolia  and  China.  It  is  a  summer  annual  with 
reddish,  usually  much-branched,  wiry  stems  and  numerous 
small,  sessile,  trifoliolate  leaves.  Over  most  of  the  area  in 
which  it  occurs  the  plants  are  only  4  to  6  inches  high,  and 
isolated  plants  often  make  masses  6  to  12  inches  across. 
Under  very  favorable  conditions  of  soil  and  climate,  the 
plants  commonly  grow  12  inches  high,  frequently  reach- 
ing 18  inches  and  exceptionally  24  to  30  inches.  In  thin 
stands  the  plants  are  spreading,  or  even  prostrate,  but 
where  dense  are  quite  erect  and  not  much  branched. 

The  plants  begin  to  appear  rather  late  in  spring,  bloom 

539 


540         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 

in  late  summer  and  mature  their  seeds  in  September  and 
October.  The  small  flowers  are  purple.  Dodson  found 
that  a  plant  in  good  condition  had  45.4  per  cent  of  its 
weight  in  stems  and  the  remainder  in  leaves  and  buds. 
As  the  plants  get  old,  the  lower  leaves  are  shed  more  or 
less  and  the  percentage  of  stem  weight  becomes  higher. 
The  roots  are  not  deep,  but  Dodson  estimated  that  the  dry 
weight  of  the  stubble  and  roots  to  12  inches  in  depth  is 
about  one-third  that  of  the  hay  removed.  McCarthy  at 
the  North  Carolina  Experiment  Station  described  a  broad- 
leaved  variety  which  showed  "  immense  superiority " 
over  the  common  sort. 

656.  Agricultural  history.  —  Lespedeza  was  first  found 
in  the  United  States  at  Monticello,  Georgia,  by  Thomas 
C.  Porter  in  1846,  his  specimens  being  still  preserved. 
The  plant  seems  to  have  already  become  common 
by  the  close  of  the  Civil  War,  and  perhaps  was  much 
spread  by  the  movements  of  the  cavalry  during  that 
conflict,  as  the  seeds  are  not  digested  by  horses.  At  the 
present  time  it  occurs  spontaneously  in  most  of  the  area 
from  central  New  Jersey  west  to  central  Kansas  and  south 
to  the  Gulf.  Throughout  all  of  this  region  it  furnishes  a 
portion  of  the  summer  pasturage,  thriving  even  on  the 
poorest  soils.  In  the  lower  Mississippi  valley,  especially 
in  Louisiana,  Mississippi  and  Arkansas,  it  grows  tall 
enough  to  cut  for  hay,  and  to  a  less  extent  this  is  the 
case  in  other  southern  states  on  rich  lands. 

There  are  no  definite  records  as  to  when  Lespedeza 
was  first  cut  for  hay,  but  about  1880  its  culture  was  taken 
up  and  later  strongly  advocated  by  J.  B.  McGehee 
in  Louisiana.  Its  status  as  a  cultivated  crop  may  be  said 
to  date  from  this  time.  Apparently  it  has  never  been 
cultivated  in  its  native  country. 


OTHER   HOT-SEASON  ANNUAL   LEGUMES       541 

657.  Adaptations.  —  Lespedeza    has    spread    naturally 
since  its  introduction  into  the  United  States  over  practi- 
cally the  whole  area  from  southern  New  Jersey  westward 
nearly  to  central  Kansas  and  south  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
It  is  only  in  the  lower  Mississippi  valley  that  it  grows 
large  enough  to  cut  for  hay,  elsewhere  being  valuable 
only  for  pasturage.      It  shows  no  marked  preference  for 
soils,  occurring  on  every  type,  if  well  drained  near  the 
surface. 

Lespedeza  delights  in  heat  and  does  not  begin  to  grow 
in  spring  until  warm  weather.  It  does  not  withstand 
frost,  but  it  rarely  begins  growth  until  all  danger  of  frost 
is  over.  Its  northern  limit  seems  determined  wholly  by 
the  length  of  the  hot  season  necessary  for  it  to  mature 
seed. 

658.  Culture.  —  Lespedeza  is  best  seeded  in  early  spring, 
preferably  February  in  Louisiana  and  Mississippi,  but  it 
may  be  sown  up  till  April.     From  15  to  25  pounds  of  seed 
is  used  to  the  acre.     Where  once  land  has  grown  Japan 
clover,  it  is  rarely  necessary  to  reseed  it  again  if  proper 
precautions  be  used.     The  seed,  however,  is  quite  cheap, 
and  Lespedeza  is  being  grown  more  and  more  in  regular 
rotations. 

It  is  most  commonly  sown  perhaps  with  oats  as  a  nurse- 
crop,  sowing  the  Lespedeza  with  the  oats  in  fall  or  better 
in  early  spring  on  the  fall-sown  oats.  After  the  oats  are 
harvested,  a  good  crop  of  Lespedeza  can  be  harvested  the 
same  season.  It  may  thus  occupy  the  land  for  two  or 
more  years,  reseeding  itself  each  year,  or  better,  be  suc- 
ceeded by  corn  or  cotton  in  a  regular  rotation. 

The  reseeding  of  the  land  to  Lespedeza  may  be  regu- 
lated in  harvesting  the  crop.  If  cut  when  in  bloom,  the 
aftermath  will  ripen  seed  before  frost,  or  strips  of  the 


542        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR    CULTURE 

Lespedeza  may  be  left  between  each  swath  for  re- 
seeding. 

If  harvested  for  seed,  enough  will  shatter  to  produce  a 
good  stand  the  next  year. 

Lespedeza  is  nearly  always  a  spontaneous  constituent 
of  Bermuda-grass  pastures,  but  if  not  present,  should  be 
sown.  Redtop  is  another  grass  that  makes  a  good  mixture 
with  it,  the  first  crop  being  mainly  redtop  and  the  second 
Lespedeza. 

659.  Pasturage  value.  —  Lespedeza  is  remarkable  for 
its  ability  to  grow  in  the  very  poorest  of  sandy  or  gravelly 
soils,  but  it  makes  far  greater  growth  on  rich  calcareous 
loams  or  clay  loams.     If  not  too  closely  grazed,  it  maintains 
itself  indefinitely  where  once  established.     It  is  a  common 
element  of  the  pastures  throughout  the  area  where  it 
occurs  except  on  wet  lands.     On  poor  thin  soils  it  often 
occurs  in  dense  pure  growths.     It  endures  shade  fairly 
well,  occurring  abundantly  in  moderately  open  woodlands. 
In  no  sense  can  it  be  called  a  weed,  as  it  is  quickly  de- 
stroyed by  cultivation.     The  herbage  is  readily  grazed  by 
all  farm  animals,  and  will  withstand  very  heavy  pasturing. 
Like  other  clovers  it  sometimes  causes  mules  and  horses 
to  "  slobber,"  but  it  has  never  been  known  to  cause  bloat- 
ing.    Late   spring  frosts   sometimes   destroy  it.     Under 
close  mowing,  as  on  golf  courses,  it  disappears  after  a  few 
years  because  no  seed  is  formed. 

In  the  lower  Mississippi  valley,  where  it  succeeds  best, 
Lespedeza  may  be  grazed  until  June  and  still  make  a  hay 
crop,  or  cut  in  August  and  the  aftermath  used  for  pasture. 

660.  Hay.  —  Only  in  the  lower  Mississippi  valley,  where 
Lespedeza  grows  tall,  is  it  much  cut  for  hay.     It  is  com- 
monly harvested  with  an  ordinary  mowing  machine,  but 
is  seldom  cut  for  hay  if  less  than  8  inches  tall.     The  plants 


OTHER   HOT-SEASON  ANNUAL   LEGUMES        543 

contain  but  little  water,  so  the  hay  cures  more  readily 
than  any  other  cultivated  legume  and  nearly  as  easily 
as  timothy. 

Owing  to  the  dense  stands  of  Lespedeza  and  the  solid 
stems,  it  weighs  very  heavy.  If  the  stand  is  dense,  a 
height  of  8  or  9  inches  will  yield  about  1  ton  of  hay  to  the 
acre  ;  if  12  to  14  inches,  approximately  2  tons  ;  and  when 
24  to  30  inches  high,  4  tons  to  the  acre. 

Probably  the  best  time  to  cut  Lespedeza  for  hay  is  when 
it  is  in  full  bloom,  but  as  the  weather  conditions  in  the 
fall  are  usually  better,  it  is  mostly  cut  in  October. 

Dodson  at  the  Louisiana  Experiment  Station  compared 
Lespedeza  hay  protected  from  rain  with  that  which  had 
been  subjected  to  various  weather  conditions,  in  two  cases 
being  rained  upon  twice.  So  far  as  chemical  analyses 
show,  practically  no  loss  resulted,  but  rains  do  injure  the 
appearance  of  the  hay  as  well  as  its  palatability. 

661.  Seed-production.  —  Seed  of  Lespedeza  is  mainly 
harvested  in  Louisiana.  It  is  conveniently  cut  with  a 
mowing  machine  having  a  bunching  attachment.  The  cut- 
ting should  take  place  when  the  seeds  are  ripe  or  nearly 
ripe,  but  the  plants  still  green.  Care  is  necessary  in  han- 
dling to  avoid  undue  shattering,  and  the  straw  must  be 
thoroughly  dry  before  it  is  thrashed. 

The  seed  crop  produced  by  the  dwarf er  plants  on  poorer 
lands  is  often  as  large  as  that  produced  on  better  soils. 
Such  a  seed  crop  is  best  harvested  by  means  of  an  iron  pan 
attached  behind  the  cutter  bar  of  the  mower,  the  top  of 
the  pan  being  covered  by  wires  or  a  perforated  sheet  of 
galvanized  iron  to  keep  out  trash.  Sometimes  such  a 
pan  is  used  in  cutting  tall  Lespedeza,  and  in  this  way 
the  best  and  ripest  seed  which  otherwise  would  be  lost  is 
secured. 


544        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

The  yield  of  seed  to  the  acre  ranges  from  5  to  12  bushels, 
and  one  bushel  of  clean,  unhulled  seed  weighs  about  25 
pounds.  One  pound  contains  about  370,000  seeds. 

FLOKIDA  VELVET  BEAN  (Stizolobium  deeringianum) 

662.  Description  ,  and    history.  —  The    Florida    velvet 
bean  is  a  vigorous-growing    bean-like    vine,   introduced 
into  Florida  previous  to   1875.     It  is  an  annual,   with 
much-branched   twining   stems,    which   under   favorable 
conditions  may  attain  a  length  of  from  30  to  50  feet, 
usually  growing  to  about  half  this  length.     The  leaves 
are  trifoliolate  with  large,  membranaceous  leaflets  shorter 
than  the  petiole.     The  leaflets  are  ovate,  the  lateral  ones 
oblique,  and  each  is  attached  to  a  short  pubescent  stalk. 
The  flowers  are  dark  purple  in  long  pendent  racemes. 
The  matured  pods  are  about  two  inches  long,  turgid,  some- 
what constricted  between  the  seeds,  and  covered  with  a 
soft,  nearly  black  velvety  pubescence.     Each  pod  con- 
tains three  to  five,  marbled  brown  and  gray  seeds. 

The  velvet  bean  will  rarely  mature  its  pods  as  far 
north  as  Washington,  D.C.  As  the  pods  constitute  the 
most  valuable  part  of  the  plant,  it  is  of  importance  only 
where  these  will,  become  mature,  which  area  includes 
Florida  and  the  southern  portions  of  Georgia,  Alabama, 
Mississippi  and  Louisiana. 

663.  Utilization.  —  On  account  of  the  long  vines   and 
the  tangled  mass  of  herbage  which  it  produces,  the  velvet 
bean  is  not  a  satisfactory  hay  plant,  as  it  can  be  cut  and 
cured  only  with  great  difficulty.     On  this  account,  it  is 
utilized  mainly  as  a  pasturage,  the  stock  being  turned 
into  the  field  in  the  fall  after  the  pods  have  matured, 
as  cattle  will  eat  not  only  the  pods  but  also  the   dry 
leaves  which  have  fallen  to  the  ground.     It  is  fed  mainly 


OTHER   HOT-SEASON  ANNUAL   LEGUMES      545 

to  cattle,  but  hogs  also  thrive  upon  it.  Owing  to  the 
very  viny  nature  of  the  plants,  it  is  necessary  to  grow 
it  in  conjunction  with  some  supporting  crop ;  other- 
wise but  a  comparatively  few  pods  are  produced. 
Among  the  supporting  crops  that  can  be  used  are  corn, 
pearl  millet,  and  sorghums.  Of  these,  corn  is  the  best, 
especially  the  strong-growing  varieties.  Various  methods 
of  planting  are  used.  When  planted  alone,  the  velvet 
bean  should  be  planted  after  the  ground  has  been  thor- 
oughly worked,  so  as  to  obtain  one  plant  about  every  five 
feet  each  way.  This  requires  about  12  pounds  of  seed 
to  the  acre.  When  planted  with  corn  or  other  supporting 
crops,  various  plans  are  used.  The  beans  may  be  planted 
in  the  same  row  with  the  corn,  but  under  such  conditions 
practically  no  corn  is  secured.  Another  method  is  to  put 
the  corn  in  successive  rows  and  plant  the  velvet  beans  in 
the  middle.  Still  another  method  is  to  plant  two  or  three 
rows  of  corn  to  each  row  of  velvet  bean.  The  maximum 
yields  of  beans  is  secured  where  the  plants  are  supported 
on  poles  or  trellises,  but  this  is  not  practicable  where  it  is 
designed  to  pasture  the  crop. 

664.  Other  species  of  Stizolobium.  —  Recent  investiga- 
tions have  disclosed  the  fact  that  in  the  countries  sur- 
rounding the  Indian  Ocean,  there  are  numerous  species 
of  stizolobium  closely  related  to  the  velvet  bean.  Most 
of  these  have  been  recently  introduced  and  are  being 
tested  in  comparison  with  the  Florida  velvet  bean. 
Among  the  most  important  are  the  Lyon  bean  (Stizolobium 
niveum),  differing  from  the  Florida  velvet  bean  in  having 
white  flowers  and  white  seeds,  and  nearly  smooth  pods 
which,  however,  shatter  readily  when  they  become  mature ; 
the  Chinese  velvet  bean,  differing  from  the  Lyon  bean 
only  in  being  much  earlier,  maturing  its  seeds  as  far  north 

2N 


546        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

as  Washington,  D.C.,  and  the  Yokohama  bean  (Stizo- 
lobium  hassjoo)  from  Japan,  the  earliest  and  least  vigorous 
of  all  the  species,  readily  maturing  its  seeds  as  far  north  as 
Maryland  and  Kansas.  Unfortunately  the  pods  shatter 
quite  readily  and  also  rot  where  they  lie  in  contact  with 
the  ground. 

The  most  desirable  type  of  the  velvet  bean  would  be 
one  that  is  comparatively  early,  and  relatively  bushy  in 
type,  whose  seeds  would  not  shatter,  and  whose  pods  would 
not  rot  when  lying  in  contact  with  the  wet  ground.  At 
the  Florida  Experiment  Station,  hybrids  have  been  made 
between  the  Florida  velvet  bean  and  the  Lyon  bean, 
which  have  given  rise  to  numerous  forms.  From  these, 
it  seems  very  probable  that  much  improved  varieties 
will  be.  secured,  even  if  the  ideal  is  not  reached.  Many 
of  these  hybrids  resemble  in  some  of  their  characteristics 
other  species,  and  it  is  possible  that  all  the  species  of  culti- 
vated stizolobiums  are  forms  of  a  single  species. 

OTHER   CROPS 

665.  Peanut  (Arachis  hypogcea).  —  The  peanut  is  in 
all  probability  a  native  of  South  America.  It  is  also 
known  as  ground  nut,  earth  nut,  goober,  and  pindar. 
The  plant  is  cultivated  primarily  for  its  seeds  for  use  as 
human  food,  but  the  herbage  is  nearly  always  saved  for 
hay,  and  sometimes  the  whole  crop  is  utilized  by  pasturing 
to  hogs. 

The  peanut  is  adapted  only  .to  regions  with  long  hot 
summers.  In  the  United  States  it  succeeds  best  south 
of  36°.  The  plant  does  well  both  on  sandy  and  clay 
soils,  but  as  the  young  pods  must  burrow  into  the  ground 
to  develop,  peanuts  are  rarely  planted  except  on  sandy  or 
silty  soils.  The  principal  producing  states  were,  in  order 


OTHER   HOT-SEASON  ANNUAL   LEGUMES       547 

of  their  acreage  in  1909,  North  Carolina,  Georgia,  Virginia, 
Florida  and  Alabama. 

The  varieties  most  cultivated  are  the  following:  Vir- 
ginia Bunch,  Virginia  Runner,  Tennessee  Red,  Valencia, 
and  Spanish.  All  of  these  have  decumbent  branches 
except  Spanish. 

Peanuts  are  planted  in  late  spring  after  the  ground  is 
thoroughly  warmed.  They  are  usually  planted  in  rows  28 
to  36  inches  wide  and  9  to  16  inches  apart  in  the  row, 
depending  on  the  variety.  The  Spanish  variety  may  be 
planted  more  closely  than  others,  and  on  this  account,  as 
well  as  its  erect  habit,  is  practically  the  only  one  used 
where  the  entire  crop  is  to  be  used  for  hay. 

Peanuts  are  usually  harvested  by  piling  the  vines  in 
tall,  narrow  cocks  about  a  stake  with  cross  pieces  near 
the  base.  When  thoroughly  cured,  the  nuts  are  removed 
and  the  straw  used  as  fodder.  The  yield  of  fodder 
ranges  from  about  1500  to  3000  pounds  or  very  rarely 
4000  pounds  to  the  acre. 

If  grown  for  forage,  the  same  method  is  commonly  used, 
but  sometimes  the  tops  are  cut  and  cured  for  hay,  and  hogs 
then  turned  in  the  field  to  feed  on  the  pods.  As  a  hay 
plant  the  peanut  cannot  compete  with  the  cowpea  and  the 
soybean,  but  as  a  crop  to  be  pastured  by  hogs  it  has  con- 
siderable importance. 

Peanuts  are  not  infrequently  used  as  pasture  to  fatten 
hogs.  From  hogs  thus  fattened  the  famous  Smithfield 
hams  are  made.  Bennett,  at  the  Arkansas  Experiment 
Station,  pastured  pigs  on  peanuts  andonchufas  in  compari- 
son with  penned  animals  fed  corn.  The  pigs  on  peanuts 
showed  a  gain  of  104J  pounds  a  pig ;  on  chuf as  66  pounds  ; 
and  on  corn  112^  pounds.  Duggar,  at  the  Alabama 
Experiment  Station,  found  that  one  acre  of  peanuts  would 


548        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 

give  pasturage  for  1  month  to  about  25  pigs  weighing 
100  pounds  each.  In  comparison  with  chufas,  rape, 
cowpeas  and  sorghum,  it  was  estimated  that  to  make  one 
pound  of  gain  the  pigs  required  in  addition  to  the  pastur- 
age grain  as  follows:  1.77  pounds  when  on  peanuts; 
2.3  pounds  when  on  chufas ;  3.07  pounds  when  on  cow- 
peas  ;  2.68  pounds  when  on  rape ;  and  3.7  pounds  when  on 
sorghum. 

666.  Florida  beggarweed  (Desmodium  tortuosum  or 
Meibomia  tortuosa).  —  Florida  beggarweed  is  a  native  of 
the  West  Indies,  but  has  been  known  in  Florida  at  least 
since  1833.  It  is  an  erect  annual  with  rather  woody 
stalks  from  3  to  10  feet  high,  bearing  an  abundant  leafage 
above,  and  when  in  flower  tipped  with  much-branched 
erect  panicles,  the  ascending  lateral  branches  being  often 
8  to  12  inches  long.  The  seeds  are  borne  in  many-jointed 
prickly  pods,  which  break  apart  at  maturity  and  are 
carried  about  by  sticking  to  the  bodies  of  animals  or  the 
clothing  of  persons.  The  plant  is  hairy  throughout,  and 
has  trifoliolate  leaves,  the  obliquely  rhomboid  leaflets  being 
from  2  to  4  inches  long.  Florida  beggarweed  is  adapted 
only  to  the  warmer  parts  of  the  Southern  States,  being 
grown  especially  on  the  sandy  lands  of  the  coastal  plain 
from  North  Carolina  to  Texas.  It  is  useful  as  a  soil  reno- 
vator and  makes  a  fine  quality  of  hay  that  is  relished  by 
all  classes  of  farm  stock.  Beggarweed  seems  never  to 
be  attacked  either  by  nematodes  or  root  rot. 

For  a  crop  of  seed,  beggarweed  should  be  sown  at  the 
rate  of  5  or  6  pounds  of  clean  seed  to  the  acre.  If  grown  for 
hay,  from  8  to  10  pounds  should  be  used.  It  should  not 
be  sown  until  the  ground  is  warm  and  moist,  and  clean 
seed  is  preferable  to  the  pods  because  of  the  more  uniform 
germination  and  better  stand  which  may  be  obtained. 


OTHER  HOT-SEASON  ANNUAL  LEGUMES       549 

If  sown  at  the  beginning  of  the  summer  rains,  the  seed 
need  not  be  covered.  It  must  not  be  covered  too  deeply, 
else  the  young  plants  will  not  be  able  to  reach  the  surface. 
By  sowing  at  the  beginning  of  the  summer  two  crops  may 
be  secured  in  Florida. 

If  cut  for  hay  when  the  first  flowers  appear,  the  stubble 
will  send  up  a  second  crop,  which  may  be  saved  for 
seed,  and  enough  seed  will  scatter  to  insure  a  crop  next 
season.  On  very  rich  ground  4  cuttings  in  one  season 
with  a  total  yield  of  4630  pounds  to  the  acre  were  obtained 
at  Charleston,  South  Carolina.  The  seed  may  also  be 
scattered  in  the  corn  rows  at  the  time  of  the  last  cultiva- 
tion or  at  the  beginning  of  the  rains  in  June.  Then,  after 
the  corn  has  been  stripped  or  cut  for  fodder,  the  beggar- 
weed  may  be  mown  for  hay  or  harvested  for  seed.  The 
crop  should  be  cut  for  hay  when  it  is  about  3  or  4  feet 
high,  or  at  the  beginning  of  the  blooming  period.  If  cut 
after  full  bloom,  many  of  the  lower  leaves  will  have 
fallen  and  much  of  the  best  part  of  the  crop  will  be  lost. 

Hulled  seed  is  now  commercial,  being  produced  wholly 
in  Florida. 

667.  The  jackbean  (Canavalia  ensiformis).  —  The  jack- 
bean  is  a  bushy,  semi-erect  annual  plant,  growing  to  a 
height  of  2  to  4  feet.  Its  stems  are  rather  coarse  and 
become  woody  toward  the  base.  The  rather  thickish 
leaves  have  a  decidedly  bitter  taste.  The  flowers  are 
purple,  borne  near  the  base  of  the  stem,  so  that  most  of 
the  pods  hang  low.  When  mature,  the  pods  are  hard  and 
firm,  9  to  14  inches  long,  each  containing  10  to  14  seeds. 
These  are  pure  white,  with  a  brown  hilum.  The  plant 
will  withstand  much  drought,  and  is  remarkably  free  from 
insects  and  fungous  diseases,  but  is  affected  by  root-knot. 

The  jackbean  is  a  native  of  the  West  Indies  and  the 


550        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

adjacent  mainland.  In  Jamaica,  whence  it  first  became 
well  known,  it  is  called  the  horse  bean  or  the  overlook  bean. 
In  this  country  it  has  been  designated  the  Pearson  bean, 
and  recently  the  Wonder  bean.  Owing  to  confusion  with 
the  similar  species  cultivated  in  Japan,  China  and  India,  it 
has  also  been  called  the  sword  bean  and  the  knife  bean, 
but  those  names  properly  belong  to  the  Asiatic  species 
(Canavalia  gladiata),  used  principally  as  a  vegetable. 

In  the  last  25  years,  the  jackbean  has  several  times 
attracted  attention  on  account  of  its  vigorous  growth 
and  large  yield  of  pods  and  seeds.  It  was  extensively 
tested  at  the  Mississippi  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 
during  the  years  1890  to  1895.  Under  field  conditions 
yields  of  30  to  40  bushels  of  beans  to  the  acre  were  obtained, 
even  when  grown  on  thin  soil.  Attempts  were  made  to 
utilize  these  beans  as  feed  for  both  beef  and  dairy  cattle, 
but  the  beans  were  found  to  be  both  unpalatable  and 
indigestible. 

Seeds  of  the  bean  were  distributed  by  P.  Pearson,  of 
Starkville,  Mississippi,  from  which  fact  it  became  known 
as  the  Pearson  bean.  At  the  Texas  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station  it  produced  35  bushels  to  the  acre.  At  the 
North  Carolina  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  it  pro- 
duced an  estimated  yield  of  40  bushels  to  the  acre.  It  was 
also  tested  at  the  Louisiana  Experiment  Station.  None  of 
these  stations  regarded  the  bean  as  promising,  but,  so  far 
as  recorded,  no  attempt  was  made  to  utilize  either  the 
herbage  or  the  seeds  as  forage.  More  recently  the  plant 
has  been  tested  in  Hawaii,  and  favorable  reports  as  to  its 
forage  value  have  been  published. 

The  value  of  the  plant  as  forage  is  yet  problematical. 
Its  successful  utilization  as  green  feed  in  Hawaii  encour- 
ages the  belief  that  it  may  be  found  equally  valuable  in 


OTHER   HOT-SEASON  ANNUAL   LEGUMES       551 

this  country,  especially  in  Texas  and  Oklahoma,  where 
its  great  drought  resistance  gives  it  particular  promise. 
There  is  also  the  probability  that  the  jackbean  may  prove 
to  be  valuable  for  silage.  Its  coarse  habit  and  heavy 
tonnage  should  adapt  it  well  to  this  purpose. 

The  large  yield  of  seed  to  the  acre  justifies  further  experi- 
ments to  determine  whether  any  means  can  be  devised  to 
utilize  the  seeds  profitably  as  feed,  which  the  work  of  the 
Mississippi  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  indicates  is 
a  difficult  problem. 

668.  Mung  bean  (Phaseolus  aureus).  —  The  mung 
bean  is  native  to  southern  Asia.  It  is  probably  a  plant 
of  very  ancient  culture,  as  it  is  grown  by  the  natives 
throughout  the  southern  half  of  Asia  and  the  principal 
Malayan  Islands  as  well  as  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa. 
In  these  countries  the  mung  bean  is  grown  mainly  for  the 
seed  which  is  an  important  article  of  human  food,  but  in 
India  the  straw  is  also  prized  as  forage  for  live  stock. 

The  habit  of  the  mung  bean  is  very  similar  to  that  of 
the  cowpea,  but  the  plants  are  less  viny  and  some  are 
strictly  bush.  The  adaptations  of  the  plant  are  also 
practically  identical  with  that  of  the  cowpea.  The  plant 
was  introduced  into  American  agriculture  as  early  as 
•  1835  when  it  was  known  as  the  Chickasaw  pea,  and  some- 
what later  it  was  called  the  Oregon  pea  under  the  erroneous 
idea  that  it  came  from  that  region.  Notwithstanding  its 
wide  testing  thus  early  in  the  Southern  States  and  much 
testing  in  recent  years  with  numerous  varieties,  the  mung 
bean  has  not  been  able  to  find  a  place  in  American  agricul- 
ture in  competition  with  the  cowpea.  The  reasons  for 
this  are  mainly  that  the  pods  continue  to  be  formed  and 
ripen  until  frost,  and  they  shatter  very  readily.  In  coun- 
tries where  labor  is  cheap  and  the  pods  are  picked  promptly 


552         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

as  they  ripen,  this  is  not  a  serious  objection  to  their 
culture.  The  seeds  also  are  very  much  attacked  by  the 
cowpea  weevil,  perhaps  more  so  than  any  other  legume 
seeds. 

The  culture  of  the  mung  bean  is  essentially  the  same  as 
that  of  the  cowpea,  ,but  it  is  preferable  to  plant  in  culti- 
vated rows  as  the  young  plants  do  not  compete  with  weeds 
as  well  as  does  the  cowpea.  If  cut  for  hay,  this  should 
be  done  as  soon  as  the  first  pods  begin  to  turn  black  in 
ripening. 

The  varieties  are  very  numerous,  differing  in  size, 
habit,  earliness  and  the  shape  and  color  of  the  seeds. 
These  are  spherical  in  most  varieties,  green,  brown  or 
marbled.  The  variety  recently  known  as  the  Newman 
bean  is  undoubtedly  the  same  as  the  old  Chickasaw  pea, 
and  this  variety  has  become  spontaneous  in  portions  of 
South  Carolina.  The  Newman  bean  is  very  late,  strictly 
erect,  reaching  a  height  of  3|  feet  and  barely  maturing 
seeds  at  Arlington  Farm,  Virginia. 

669.  Urd  (Pkaseolus  mungo).  —  The  urd  is  very  closely 
related  to  the  mung  bean,  but  it  differs  in  its  procumbent 
habit,  in  its  shorter,  more  hairy  pods,  and  in  its  oblong 
green  or  mottled  seeds  which  have  a  concave  hilum.  The 
urd  is  probably  native  to  India,  in  which  country  it  is- 
extensively  grown  for  human  food.  As  a  hay  crop  it  is 
inferior  to  the  mung  bean  on  account  of  its  procumbent 
habits  which  make  it  difficult  to  mow.  The  largest  and 
latest  varieties,  however,  make  a  dense  mass  of  herbage, 
a  single  plant  covering  an  area  3  feet  square  and  reaching 
a  height  of  20  to  30  inches.  One  of  these  late  varieties 
is  used  as  a  green-manure  crop  in  the  West  Indies  under 
the  name  of  Woolly  Pyrol.  There  is  hardly  any  like- 
lihood of  the  urd  becoming  of  agricultural  value  in 


OTHER   HOT-SEASON  ANNUAL   LEGUMES       553 

the  Southern  States,  as  it  can  scarcely  compete  with 
the  cowpea,.  except  perhaps  in  Florida  as  a  green- 
manure  crop.  Unfortunately,  however,  all  of  the  varieties 
seem  much  subject  to  the  attack  of  nematodes. 

670.  Moth  bean  (Phaseolus  aconitifolius) .  —  The  moth- 
bean  is  an  annual  legume,  native  of  India,  where  it  is 
grown  principally  for  its  seeds,  which  are  used  as  human 
food.  In  habit  it  forms  mats  2  to  3  feet  in  diameter  and 
12  to  18  inches  high,  with  very  numerous  viny  branches, 
the  lower  ones  lying  prostrate  on  the  ground.  The  leaves 
have  three  leaflets,  each  divided  into  3  to  5  narrow  seg- 
ments. This  bean  has  proved  to  be  exceedingly  well 
adapted  to  the  conditions  in  northern  Texas,  where  in 
many  ways  it  is  superior  to  the  cowpea.  The  prostrate 
habit  and  immense  amount  of  foliage  enable  it  to  cover 
the  ground  so  completely  that  there  is  practically  no 
evaporation  of  water  from  the  soil.  The  very  viny 
branches  and  the  persistency  with  which  the  leaves  are 
held  make  an  unusually  fine  quality  of  hay,  which  stock 
of  all  kinds  eat  greedily.  No  difficulty  has  been  found  in 
mowing  this  plant  if  cultivated  in  rows,  as  is  usually  neces- 
sary in  semi-arid  regions,  if  the  mower  be  started  under 
the  first  plant. 

The  yield  to  the  acre  during  the  three  years  in  which  it 
was  under  trial  averaged  about  2  tons,  fully  equal  to  that 
of  the  cowpea.  Under  favorable  conditions  the  pods  are 
produced  in  large  numbers  and  show  no  tendency  to  shatter. 
The  roots  are  remarkably  well  provided  with  tubercles, 
indicating  that  the  plant  is  a  very  efficient  nitrogen 
gatherer.  So  far  as  can  be  ascertained  in  limited  experi- 
ence with  it,  it  is  somewhat  more  drought  resistant  than 
the  cowpea,  with  which  crop  it  will  necessarily  compete 
agriculturally.  It  seems  reasonably  certain  that  this 


554         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

plant  will  become  of  considerable  use  in  southwestern 
Kansas,  western  Oklahoma  and  northern  Texas.  Where 
the  rainfall  is  greater,  comparative  experiments  indicate 
that  the  cowpea  is  distinctively  preferable. 

The  methods  employed  in  growing  cowpeas  are  satis- 
factory for  the  moth  bean.  The  crop  should  be  planted 
in  rows  from  2J  to  3  feet  apart,  with  plants  every  2  to  3 
inches.  This  requires  from  5  to  6  pounds  of  seed  to  the 
acre.  Owing  to  the  thick  mat  of  vines  produced,  the  crop 
can  be  easily  harvested  with  a  mower  by  setting  the  cutter 
bar  low.  At  least  two  cultivations  should  be  given  and 
the  surface  soil  left  as  smooth  as  possible,  so  as  to  facili- 
tate harvesting.  The  crop  should  not  be  harvested 
until  it  has  made  its  maximum  growth.  The  mass  of 
green  forage  can  best  be  cured  in  windrows  and  later  hauled 
and  stored  without  putting  into  cocks. 

671.  Adzuki  bean  (Phaseolus  angularis] .  —  The  adzuki 
bean  is  probably  native  to  eastern  Asia,  but  the  wild 
plant  is  not  known.  It  is  extensively  cultivated  in  Man- 
churia, Korea  and  Japan,  and  is  rarely  found  in  the 
hill  country  of  northern  India.  In  Japan  about  350,000 
acres  are  grown  annually.  It  is  readily  distinguished 
from  the  mung  bean,  to  which  it  is  closely  related,  by  the 
pods  and  seeds.  The  seeds  of  this  species  are  about  the 
size  of  an  average  garden  pea,  but  are  oblong  in  shape,  and 
red,  cream,  orange  or  mottled  in  color.  The  pods  are 
mostly  pale  colored  and  smooth,  resembling  small  cowpea 
pods,  while  those  of  the  mung  bean  are  dark  colored, 
smaller,  and  hairy.  This  bean  resembles  an  upright  cowpea 
in  its  habits  of  growth,  but  the  stems  are  not  as  large  and 
hardly  as  woody.  It  is  adapted  to  essentially  the  same 
conditions  as  the  soybean. 

In  Japan   and   Manchuria  the   adzuki  bean  is   grown 


OTHER   HOT-SEASON  ANNUAL   LEGUMES      555 

entirely  for  human  food,  and  as  a  producer  of  seed  it  excels 
any  other  bean  adapted  to  the  region  in  which  it  will 
grow,  excepting  the  soybean.  On  account  of  its  heavy 
yield  of  seed  it  is  likely  to  become  of  some  impor- 
tance in  the  United  States,  either  for  human  food  or 
for  growing  to  feed  animals.  The  plants  are  smaller 
than  cowpeas  or  soybeans,  so  the  yield  of  herbage  is 
but  moderate. 

The  adzuki  bean  does  not  compete  satisfactorily  with 
weeds  and  therefore  must  be  planted  in  cultivated  rows 
which  may  be  from  18  inches  to  3  feet  apart,  depending 
on  the  variety  and  the  method  of  cultivation.  The  earli- 
est varieties  mature  in  about  90  days,  while  the  latest 
varieties  require  140  days. 

672.  Bonavist  or  hyacinth  bean  (Dolichos  lablab).  — 
This  bean  is  probably  a  native  of  Africa,  but  has  been 
cultivated  since  ancient,  perhaps  prehistoric,  times  in 
southern  Asia,  as  well  as  in  Africa.  The  ripe  seeds,  as  well 
as  the  green  pods,  are  used  for  human  food. 

The  bonavist  is  an  annual  except  in  the  tropics,  where 
it  may  persist  two  years  or  more.  In  a  general  way  it 
resembles  the  cowpea,  but  the  stems  are  harder,  and  the 
plant  more  viny,  but  when  supported,  often  grows  to  a 
height  of  20  to  25  feet.  The  flowers  are  sweet  scented 
and  borne  in  panicles,  4  to  18  inches  long ;  the  much- 
compressed  pods  are  shaped  like  a  broad  scimitar  and 
the  seeds  have  a  conspicuous  white  caruncle  extending 
one-third  of  their  circumference. 

The  varieties  are  numerous,  at  least  30,  and  differ  in 
earliness  ;  color  of  foliage,  green  or  purple  ;  color  of  flowers, 
white,  pink  or  purple ;  size,  shape  and  color  of  the  pods 
and  seeds,  the  latter  being  white,  reddish,  black  or 
speckled.  The  varieties  with  purple  foliage  are  often 


556        FOE  AGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

grown  as  ornamentals.  One  variety  with  white,  waxy 
pods  is  excellent  as  a  vegetable. 

The  adaptations  of  the  bonavist  are  practically  identi- 
cal with  those  of  the  cowpea,  and  it  may  be  culti- 
vated by  identical  methods.  When  grown  in  fields  for 
hay,  they  have  given  very  promising  results  in  southern 
Kansas  and  northern  Texas,  being  at  least  equal  to  cow- 
peas  in  yield  and  palatability.  Some  varieties  are  heavy 
seed  producers,  yielding  about  as  much  as  cowpeas.  The 
habit  of  all  the  varieties  is  very  much  more  viny  than 
cowpeas,  in  a  general  way  being  intermediate  between 
cowpeas  and  velvet  beans.  When  grown  in  Virginia 
with  corn  for  silage  or  with  sorghum  for  hay,  they  have 
outyielded  cowpeas,  the  vines  being  much  more  rapid 
growers.  There  are  two  possible  objections  to  them, 
however.  The  vines  grow  very  much  more  rapidly  than 
the  cornstalks  and  tend  to  bind  the  rows  of  corn  together, 
and  there  is  also  a  much  larger  mass  of  herbage  covering 
the  ground  than  in  the  case  of  cowpeas,  much  of  which 
cannot  be  saved  in  harvesting. 

In  Cuba  this  bean  has  been  considered  superior  to  the 
cowpea.  Like  many  other  legumes,  however,  the  bonavist 
is  susceptible  both  to  the  root-knot  caused  by  nematodes 
and  to  wilt,  although  it  is  possible  that  varieties  resistant 
to  these  diseases  may  be  found,  as  has  been  the  case  with 
the  cowpea.  At  the  present  time,  however,  the  bonavist 
offers  no  particular  promise  throughout  the  cotton  region 
except  in  Texas.  In  drought  resistance  it  is  at  least  equal 
to  the  cowpea  and  apparently  somewhat  superior.  In 
all  respects  it  will  have  to  meet  the  cowpea  in  competi- 
tion, and  it  still  remains  to  be  determined  whether  in  any 
part  of  the  country  it  will  be  sufficiently  superior  to  the 
cowpea  to  warrant  its  general  culture.  The  roots  are 


OTHER   HOT-SEASON  ANNUAL   LEGUMES       557 

remarkably  well  provided  with  tubercles ;  indeed,  in  this 
respect  far  surpassing  the  cowpea. 

673.  Guar  (Cyamopsis  tetragonoloba).  —  Guar  is  an 
annual,  native  of  India,  where  it  has  long  been  cultivated 
t©  a  limited  extent.  The  plant  is  grown  both  for  green 
forage  and  for  the  seed,  which  according  to  Duthie  is 
used  mainly  to  fatten  cattle. 

The  plants  are  stiff  and  erect,  simple  stemmed  or  with 
comparatively  few  branches,  and  3  to  6  feet  high.  The 
leaves  are  trifoliolate  and  angularly  toothed.  The  small 
flowers  are  numerous  in  short  erect  axillary  racemes. 
The  pods  are  flat,  1J  to  2  inches  long,  and  about  7-seeded. 

Guar  is  adapted  to  about  the  same  general  conditions 
as  the  cowpea,  but  it  does  not  ripen  its  seed  in  northern 
Virginia.  It  is  especially  characterized  by  its  remarkable 
drought  resistance.  At  Chico,  California,  a  fine  crop  was 
produced  without  a  drop  of  rain  falling  upon  it  from  the 
time  it  was  planted  until  nearly  ready  to  harvest.  During 
the  whole  season  these  plots  showed  no  suffering  whatever 
from  the  drought,  which  seriously  affected  adjoining  plots 
of  Kafir  corn  and  sorghum.  Similarly  marked  drought 
resistance  was  shown  at  San  Antonio,  Texas. 

Guar  is  very  prolific,  a  single  plant  grown  at  Chico 
producing  260  pods.  The  yield  in  India  is  stated  to  be 
about  13  bushels  to  the  acre,  but  small  plots  in  this  country 
have  shown  a  considerably  greater  yield. 

There  are  many  varieties,  some  of  them  with  single 
stems ;  others  branched  from  the  base.  The  upright- 
growing  varieties  are  preferable,  at  least  from  a  seed-pro- 
ducing standpoint.  Some  of  the  varieties  have  much 
larger  seeds  than  others,  and  on  this  account  are  more 
desirable. 

In  regard  to  its  palatability  to  live  stock,  the  evidence 


558        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR    CULTURE 

is  thus  far  somewhat  conflicting.  At  the  Oklahoma 
Experiment  Station  the  cattle  ate  the  straw  readily  after 
the  seeds  had  been  thrashed  out,  notwithstanding  that  it 
was  decidedly  coarse  and  the  leaves  had  fallen.  Most 
experimenters  report  that  their  mules  and  cows  eat  it  as 
well  as  cowpeas.  G.  A.  Schattenberg,  of  Boerne,  Texas, 
found  that  his  sheep  ate  it  readily,  and  he  regards  it 
as  an  exceedingly  valuable  plant  for  pasture.  A  few 
experimenters  have  had  less  satisfactory  experiences,  in 
some  cases  the  animals  absolutely  refusing  to  eat  it. 
The  mixed  results  would  lead  to  the  belief  that  most 
animals  will  acquire  a  taste  for  it,  as  animals  commonly 
refuse  a  new  forage  at  first.  Its  use  in  India  certainly 
confirms  this  idea. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 
MISCELLANEOUS   PERENNIAL   LEGUMES 

THERE  are  parts  of  America  to  which  none  of  the  pe- 
rennial clovers  or  alfalfa  are  well  adapted  and  for  which  a 
good  perennial  legume  is  greatly  to  be  desired.  This  need 
is  greatest  in  the  South.  In  Europe  sainfoin,  kidney 
vetch,  and  other  perennials  have  been  profitably  employed, 
but  none  of  these  seems  to  possess  much  value  for  America. 
Among  recently  exploited  crops  of  this  class,  kudzu  is 
probably  the  most  promising. 

SAINFOIN  (Onobrychis  vicicefolia) 

674.  Description.  —  Sainfoin  is  also  known  as  esparcet 
or  esparsette.  A  synonym  of  its  botanical  name  is  Ono- 
brychis sativa  Lam.  It  occurs  wild  in  most  of  the  southern 
half  of  Europe  and  eastward  to  Lake  Baikal.  About 
twelve  botanical  varieties  have  been  described  from 
Europe,  but  none  of  these  has  come  into  agricultural  use. 

Sainfoin  is  a  very  long-lived,  deep-rooted  perennial. 
It  is  stated  by  Lawson  that  plants  may  live  100  years. 
The  root  may  reach  a  diameter  of  2  inches  and  extend 
to  a  depth  of  20  feet  or  more.  From  the  branched  crown 
arise  numerous  stout,  erect  stems  which  reach  a  height  of 
1  to  2  feet.  The  leaves  are  odd-pinnate  with  13  to  15 
leaflets.  The  rose-colored  (rarely  white)  flowers  are  in 
an  erect,  close  raceme  2  to  5  inches  long.  The  one-seeded 

559 


560        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

pods  are  brown,  indehiscent,  lenticular  and  reticulated 
on  the  surface. 

675.  Agricultural  history.  —  The  culture  of  sainfoin  prob- 
ably dates  back  about  400  years.     It  was  first  cultivated 
in  southern  France,  the  first  definite  record  according  to 
Vianne  being  in  1582.     Its  culture  was   first   described 
in  1629.     It  was  grown  in  Germany  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  but  not  in  Italy  until  the  eighteenth  century. 

Its  spread  over  Europe  had  a  very  marked  effect  inas- 
much as  it  led  to  the  profitable  cultivation  of  much  dry 
calcareous  land,  which  before  had  been  nearly  valueless. 
Its  culture  has  been  largely  restricted  to  chalky  or  other 
calcareous  soils,  particularly  where  subject  to  drought. 
In  a  general  way,  its  distribution  is  nearly  the  same  as  that 
of  the  grape  in  Europe,  but  it  does  well  in  places  too  cool 
for  grape  culture. 

Sainfoin  has  never  attained  any  agricultural  impor- 
tance in  America,  though  it  has  often  been  tested.  It 
would  seem,  however,  that  on  some  calcareous  soils  its 
culture  might  become  profitably  established. 

676.  Culture.  —  Sainfoin  is  usually  grown  in  pure  cul- 
tures, the  seed  being  sown  at  the  rate  of  120  to  150  pounds 
to  the  acre  if  drilled,  more  if  broadcasted.     Commercial 
seed  is  in  the  hull,  and  this  germinates  better  than  the  hulled 
seed.     The  seed  should  be  sown  with  a  drill  a  half -inch  or 
more  deep,  or  else  well  harrowed  after  broadcasting.     It  is 
usually  sown  in  spring  with  a  nurse  crop.     Fall  sowings 
are  apt  to  winter-kill. 

Usually  but  one  cutting  of  hay  is  obtained  each  season, 
mowed  during  bloom,  which  lasts  about  one  week.  Under 
favorable  conditions  a  second  smaller  cutting  may  be 
secured,  but  this  as  a  rule  is  only  half  as  large  as  the  first, 
so  that  it  is  generally  pastured.  Sainfoin  has  never  been 


MISCELLANEOUS  PERENNIAL  LEGUMES        561 

known  to  cause  bloating.  The  yield  of  hay  varies  from 
1800  to  6000  pounds  to  the  acre,  on  the  average  about 
3000  pounds.  The  yield  is  as  a  rule  best  in  the  fourth 
year. 

On  poor  soils  fields  are  reported  to  last  15  to  22  years. 
On  good  soils,  however,  the  better  practice  is  to  allow  the 
fields  to  stand  4  to  7  years,  and  then  not  plant  sainfoin 
again  for  an  equal  length  of  time,  as  soils  become  "  sick  " 
to  sainfoin  in  a  manner  analogous  to  "  clover  sick  "  soils. 

677.  Seed.  —  Commercial   seed   of   sainfoin   is   nearly 
always  in  the  hull.     Fresh  seed  should  germinate  98  per 
cent  and  have  a  purity  of  80  per  cent.     The  seed  loses  its 
viability  rapidly,  so  that  after  one  year  it  is  valueless. 
On  this  account  the  commercial  seed  is  often  very  low  in 
viability.     After  planting  the  seed  is  slow  to  germinate, 
requiring  2  to  3  weeks  before  it  has  all  sprouted. 

The  seed  is  all  grown  in  Europe,  the  average  yield  being 
stated  as  about  500  pounds  to  the  acre. 

678.  American  data.  —  Sainfoin  has  been  tested  in  a 
small  way  at  most  of  the  American  experiment  stations, 
but  nowhere  on  the  continent  has  it  become  established 
as  a  crop.     Long  before  the  days  of  experiment  stations, 
sainfoin  had  been  frequently  tested  by  farmers,  and  there 
are  many  references  to  it  in  early  American  agricultural 
literature.     Fields  have  often  been  planted  in  the  irrigated 
lands  of  the  West,  but  neither  under  such  conditions  nor 
on  the  unirrigated  lands  has  it  yielded  as  heavily  as  alfalfa. 
Under  irrigation  the  average  yield  for  2  years  at  the  Utah 
Experiment  Station  was  but  2000  pounds  to  the  acre,  much 
less  than  either  red  clover  or  alfalfa.     Without  irrigation 
but  one  early  cutting  was  secured. 

At  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College  an  average  yield 
of  12  tons  green  matter  to  the  acre  has  been  secured  from 

'2o 


562        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 

spring  sowings.     In  one  case  the  plants  survived  in  a  plot 
for  8  to  10  years. 

At  the  Central  Experimental  Farm,  Ottawa,  Canada, 
sainfoin  has  given  the  most  favorable  results  reported  in 
America.  A  plot  sown  May  14  was  cut  August  12  and 
yielded  3700  pounds  hay  to  the  acre ;  the  next  year  it  was 
cut  twice,  the  yields  being  respectively  4200  and  5400 
pounds  of  hay  to  the  acre.  During  three  years  the  annual 
yields  in  hay  to  the  acre  were  respectively  7160,  9160  and 
13,398  pounds.  The  yield  in  the  third  year  was  larger 
than  that  of  any  other  of  18  hay  crops,  either  single  or  in 
mixtures. 

OTHER  PERENNIAL  LEGUMES 

679.  Sulla  or  Spanish  sainfoin  ( Hedysarum  coronarium) 
is  a  perennial  legume  native  to  the  Mediterranean  region 
of  Europe  and  north  Africa,  where  its  culture  is  locally 
important  in  Spain,  Sicily,  Malta  and  southern  France. 
Its  culture  was  recorded  in  Italy  in  1766,  but  it  is  probably 
still  older.  The  plant  has  deep  roots ;  ascending  stems 
1  to  3  feet  long ;  pinnate  leaves  with  3  to  5  pairs  of  oval, 
obtuse,  pale  leaflets ;  flowers  numerous  in  erect  racemes ; 
pods  flattened,  constricted  between  the  circular  joints. 

The  ordinary  variety  has  red  flowers  and  under  favorable 
conditions  grows  4  to  5  feet  high.  Another  variety  with 
white  flowers  grows  less  tall.  In  Algeria  there  is  said  to 
be  a  red-flowered,  biennial  variety. 

Sulla  is  especially  adapted  to  deep  soils,  especially  if 
calcareous,  but  will  grow  on  any  deep,  fertile,  well-drained 
soils.  It  is  commonly  planted  in  the  spring,  and  thus 
sown,  will  yield  on  dry  soil  one  cutting  the  first  season  and 
thereafter  two.  Under  irrigation  three  or  more  cuttings 
may  be  obtained. 

The  seed  germinates  poorly,  much  of  it  being  hard,  but 


MISCELLANEOUS  PERENNIAL   LEGUMES        563 

it  is  said  that  after  immersing  it  5  minutes  in  boiling 
water  a  germination  of  95  per  cent  may  be  obtained.  The 
seed  costs  about  25  cents  per  pound. 

Fields  are  usually  left  3  years  or  more  and  may  yield  as 
high  as  5  tons  of  hay  per  season. 

Fairly  satisfactory  results  with  sulla  have  been  secured 
in  southern  Texas  with  irrigation,  but  under  such  conditions 
it  cannot  compete  with  alfalfa.  At  the  Massachusetts 
Experiment  Station  it  is  said  to  have  lived  for  several 
years. 

680.  Kudzu  (Pueraria  thunbergiana)  is  a  woody,  legu- 
minous vine  native  to  Japan.  The  leaves  resemble  in  a 
general  way  those  of  the  common  bean,  but  they  are  larger 
and  angularly  lobed,  besides  being  tougher  in  texture  ; 
the  stems  and  leaf  stalks  are  somewhat  hairy.  As  far 
north  as  Maryland  the  vine  will  bloom,  but  only  occasion- 
ally, and  then  late  in  the  fall.  The  blossoms  are  dull  pur- 
ple-red in  pendent  racemes,  but  a  white-flowered  variety 
is  said  to  occur  in  Japan.  The  pods  are  thin,  very  hairy 
and  do  not  mature  in  the  latitude  of  Washington,  D.C. 

Kuclzu  is  remarkable  for  its  very  rapid  growth  during 
the  warm  weather  of  midsummer.  It  succeeds  well  in 
the  humid  eastern  part  of  the  United  States,  and  will 
grow  in  almost  any  type  of  soil.  It  succeeds  best,  how- 
ever, with  an  abundance  of  heat  and  moisture.  Kudzu 
is  a  most  excellent  vine  for  arbors  and  porches,  for  which 
purpose  it  is  grown  in  most  of  the  southern  cities, 
climbing  to  a  height  of  60  feet  or  more,  It  survives 
winter  as  far  north  as  Nova  Scotia. 

Kudzu  was  probably  first  introduced  in  the  United 
States  in  1876,  when  it  was  grown  at  the  Centennial 
Exposition  in  Philadelphia.  It  is  only  recently,  however, 
that  it  has  created  interest  as  a  forage  crop,  due  largely 


564        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

to  the  work  of  C.  E.  Pleas  of  Chipley,  Florida.  At- 
tracted by  the  remarkable  luxuriance  of  the  plant  and  the 
fact  that  horses  and  cows  ate  the  leaves  greedily,  he  cured 
some  as  hay  and  found  it  equally  palatable  to  animals. 
He  then  planted  a  small  field,  probably  the  first  of  the 
kind  ever  planted  in  this  country.  Under  field  conditions 
kudzu  sends  out  long  prostrate  branches  which  root  at 
many  of  the  joints  and  send  up  ascending  twining  branches 
to  a  height  of  2  to  4  feet.  Eventually  these  become  sepa- 
rate plants  as  the  prostrate  stems  usually  die  between  the 
rooted  joints.  Such  a  field  when  full  grown  presents 
much  the  appearance  of  a  thick  field  of  cowpeas  or  soy- 
beans. It  can  be  readily  cut  with  a  mower,  and  the  hay 
cures  more  readily  than  most  legumes,  as  the  leaves  are 
less  juicy.  There  is  practically  no  shedding  of  the  leaves 
in  curing. 

Some  fields  in  northern  Florida  have  yielded  three  cut- 
tings of  hay  a  season  when  well  established,  and  yields  of 
as  high  as  10  tons  to  the  acre  have  been  claimed.  In  other 
fields  the  total  yield  has  been  smaller  than  that  of  velvet 
beans.  It  seems  probable  that  under  favorable  conditions 
kudzu  will  prove  a  very  profitable  crop,  notwithstanding 
the  fact  that  its  perennial  nature  does  not  permit  of  grow- 
ing a  winter  crop  in  rotation. 

The  seed  of  kudzu  does  not  germinate  very  well,  so  that 
the  plant  is  usually  propagated  by  layers.  A  new  field 
of  kudzu  is  best  established  by  the  transplanting  of  well- 
rooted  plants  in  very  early  spring.  These  should  be 
planted  about  10  feet  apart  each  way,  and  the  first  season 
will  pretty  well  cover  the  ground  with  prostrate  runners. 
The  second  season  a  fair  crop  should  be  obtained,  but  the 
field  will  not  produce  best  results  till  the  third  year.  The 
planting  should  be  done  early  in  the  spring,  but  in  the 


MISCELLANEOUS  PERENNIAL   LEGUMES        565 

extreme  south  may  be  done  at  any  time  during  the  winter. 
To  avoid  the  loss  of  land  the  first  season,  corn  may  be 
planted  after  setting  out  the  kudzu,  and  the  two  do  not 
interfere  with  each  other. 

The  culture  of  kudzu  is  still  in  an  experimental  stage, 
but  for  permanent  hay  fields,  especially  in  the  South,  it 
is  likely  to  become  of  considerable  importance.  Small 
experimental  plots  at  the  Kentucky  and  Alabama  Experi- 
ment Stations,  as  well  as  at  Arlington  Farm,  Virginia, 
have  given  promising  results.  At  the  Florida  Experiment 
Station  the  plot  yields  have  thus  far  not  been  as  satisfac- 
tory as  those  of  velvet  beans. 

681.  Flat  pea  (Lathyrus  silvestris  var.  wagneri)  is  a 
native  of  most  of  Europe  and  the  Caucasus  region  of 
Asia.  The  cultivated  variety  was.  first  domesticated  by 
Wagner  in  1862  from  the  Carpathian  Mountains,  Austria. 
The  wild  plant  was  unpalatable  and  the  seeds  very  hard, 
but  Wagner  was  able  to  improve  the  plant  by  selection  in 
both  these  respects.  Since  1878  the  plant  has  been  much 
discussed,  and  at  times  very  extravagant  claims  made  for  it. 

The  plant  is  a  long-lived  perennial  closely  allied  to  the 
old  perennial  sweet  pea  of  the  gardens.  The  stems  are 
wing-margined,  weak  and  reclining  without  support, 
becoming  3  to  6  feet  long;  leaves  with  a  single  pair  of 
lanceolate  leaflets,  and  branched  tendrils ;  flowers  pink, 
3  to  10  in  a  loose  raceme. 

It  grows  but  slowly  at  first  and  usually  does  not  bloom 
till  the  second  year.  In  Germany  the  green  plant  is  said 
to  be  eaten  readily  by  horses  and  swine. 

The  flat  pea  has  been  tested  at  many  of  the  American 
experiment  stations,  but  by  none  has  the  plant  been  com- 
mended nor  has  it  won  for  itself  a  place  in  American 
agriculture.  When  once  established  it  may  persist  for 


566        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

years.  At  the  Michigan  Experiment  Station  one  acre 
yielded  in  its  second  year  two  cuttings ;  the  first  cutting, 
June  29,  weighed  23,997  pounds  green  and  5431  pounds 
dry;  the  second  cutting,  September  16,  weighed  17,188 
pounds  green  and  3636  pounds  dry  —  a  total  yield  of  20.5 
tons  of  green  matter  and  4.5  tons  dry  hay.  Cattle  ate 
the  green  forage  readily. 

At  the  Vermont  Experiment  Station  the  second  year's 
crop  was  6J  tons  green  matter  or  If  tons  hay  to  the  acre, 
and  the  third  year's  crop  fully  as  large. 

At  the  Pennsylvania  Experiment  Station,  flat  peas 
gave  in  two  years  an  average  yield  to  the  acre  of  17,700 
pounds  green  herbage  of  3700  pounds  of  hay,  but  the  crop 
is  not  recommended,  because  of  the  difficulty  of  securing  a 
stand,  and  its  unpalatability. 

The  flat  pea  has  nowhere  in  America  attained  any 
definite  status  as  a  field  crop,  but  where  a  long-lived 
perennial  legume  is  needed  in  the  Northern  States,  prob- 
ably no  other  species  is  better  adapted  to  the  purpose. 

682.  Kidney  vetch  (Anthyllis  vulneraria)  is  native  to 
much  of  temperate  Europe,  Asia  and  North  Africa.  It 
was  first  brought  into  cultivation  in  Prussia  about  1859. 
Two  varieties  are  cultivated,  one  with  pale  yellow  and 
the  other  with  reddish  flowers,  but  otherwise  they  scarcely 
differ. 

The  plant  is  a  perennial  with  roots  3  feet  or  more  long. 
The  basal  leaves  are  simple,  but  the  cauline  are  pinnate. 
The  stems  are  stout  and  erect,  not  at  all  viny  as  in  the  true 
vetches,  to  which  it  is  not  closely  related. 

Kidney  vetch  is  most  important  on  sandy  and  calcareous 
soils  in  North  Germany,  but  is  grown  to  some  extent  in 
other  European  countries.  It  is  especially  valuable  where 
clover  and  other  legumes  do  not  thrive.  In  all  respects 


MISCELLANEOUS  PERENNIAL   LEGUMES        567 

it  is  cultivated  much  like  red  clover,  being  sown  in  Ger- 
many in  fall  with  a  grain  crop.  The  plants  grow  so  slowly 
that  there  is  but  little  fall  pasturage  after  the  grain  crop 
is  removed.  Thereafter  it  yields  moderate  hay  crops  for 
two  years ;  if  pastured,  it  lasts  3  to  4  years.  Usually 
but  one  hay  crop  a  year  can  be  obtained,  and  the  after- 
math is  very  small.  Kidney  vetch  is,  however,  rarely 
sown  alone  but  in  mixtures,  and  is  better  adapted  for  pas- 
tures than  for  meadows.  Both  as  pasturage  and  as  hay, 
kidney  vetch  is  more  readily  eaten  by  sheep  than  by  other 
animals.  It  seems  never  to  cause  bloating. 

The  harvesting  of  the  seed  is  rather  difficult,  as,  if  cut 
too  green,  it  will  not  thrash  out,  and  if  too  ripe,  it  shatters 
much.  The  plants  usually  die  after  seed  harvest.  The 
seed  yield  varies  from  350  to  700  pounds  an  acre.  A 
bushel  weighs  60  to  64  pounds,  and  one  pound  contains 
126,000  to  182,000  seeds,  according  to  Stebler. 

Kidney  vetch  is  usually  sown  in  mixtures,  but  if  sown 
alone  20  pounds  of  seed  an  acre  is  used.  Werner  says 
that  the  yield  of  hay  on  calcareous  sand  is  5000  to  9000 
pounds  an  acre ;  on  good  sandy  soil,  3500  to  5000  pounds  ; 
and  on  poor  sandy  soils,  1800  to  2500  pounds ;  or  on  the 
average  about  4000  pounds  to  the  acre. 

Kidney  vetch  has  not  proved  of  any  particular  value 
under  American  conditions.  The  plant  is  not  rarely  found 
in  ballast  grounds,  but  nowhere  has  it  become  really  natu- 
ralized. It  has  been  tested  in  a  small  way  at  many  Ameri- 
can Experiment  Stations,  but  none  have  recommended 
it  as  being  promising. 

At  the  Utah  Experiment  Station  it  gave  a  yield  of  only 
1 150  pounds  of  hay  to  the  acre.  At  the  Ontario  Agricultural 
College  the  average  yield  for  2  years  was  2,6  tons  green 
matter  to  the  acre. 


568         FORAGE   PLANTS   AND    THEIR    CULTURE 

683.  Goat's  rue  (Galega  officinalis)  is  native  from  south- 
east Europe  to  Persia,  and  came  into  agricultural  use  in 
Germany  in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
It  seems  never  to  have  been  much  grown,  and  is  not  now 
important  except  in  special  localities.  Goat's  rue  has 
succeeded  well  in  small  trials  at  many  places  in  the  United 
States,  but  has  never  come  into  agricultural  use. 

The  plant  is  a  deep-rooted  perennial  with  abundant 
stout  stems  three  to  four  feet  high,  each  terminated  by  a 
raceme  of  pale  violet  flowers,  but  white-flowered  and  rose- 
flowered  varieties  occur.  The  leaves  are  numerous  and 
pinnately  compound. 

Two  cuttings  are  obtained  under  favorable  conditions 
in  Europe,  and  this  has  also  been  the  experience  at  Arling- 
ton Farm,  Virginia.  The  plant  is  too  coarse  to  make  good 
hay,  and  so  is  used  mainly  for  soiling.  In  good  soil,  the 
yield  of  green  substance  is  said  to  equal  that  of  alfalfa. 
It  is  usually  sown  in  spring,  and  is  best  grown  in  cultivated 
rows,  never  in  mixtures.  The  seeds  are  rather  large,  one 
pound  containing  62,000,  and  22  pounds  an  acre  is  the 
rate  of  seeding.  The  Utah  Experiment  Station  records 
yields  of  4490  pounds  of  hay  to  the  acre. 

One  instance  in  France  is  recorded  where  54  sheep  died 
and  84  were  badly  affected  from  eating  goat's  rue.  In 
further  tests  it  was  found  that  7  pounds  of  the  plant  would 
kill  a  sheep. 

684.  Bird's-foot  trefoil  (Lotus  corniculatus)  is  native 
to  much  of  temperate  Europe  and  Asia.  It  is  a  low- 
growing  perennial  with  a  stout  root  and  bearing  numerous 
slender,  ascending  or  spreading  branches  6  to  18  inches 
long.  The  leaves  bear  five  small  leaflets.  The  bright 
yellow,  showy  flowers  are  in  umbels  of  2  to  6. 

In  northern   Europe   bird's-foot   trefoil   is   considered 


MISCELLANEOUS  PERENNIAL   LEGUMES        569 

a  valuable  constituent  in  pasture  lands,  and  is  sometimes 
sown  in  hay  mixtures,  but  it  is  too  small  to  be  of  much 
value  for  such  purpose. 

Bird's-foot  trefoil  has  succeeded  well  enough  in  trials 
in  nearly  all  the  humid  portions  of  the  United  States, 
except  the  extreme  south,  but  its  growth  is  too  small  to 
warrant  its  cultivation,  and  it  has  not  shown  any  aggres- 
siveness in  becoming  established.  It  is  nowhere  really 
naturalized  in  North  America. 

The  seed  weighs  60  pounds  to  the  bushel  and  11  pounds 
to  the  acre  is  seeded,  if  sown  alone.  It  is  expensive  to  har- 
vest, and  this  has  perhaps  prevented  the  greater  use  of  the 
plant. 

Two  varieties  of  Lotus  corniculatus  are  also  utilized 
agriculturally  and  sold  by  seedsmen ;  namely,  var.  tenui- 
folius  with  narrow  leaves,  and  var.  villosus  with  pubescent 
foliage.  Another  species,  Lotus  uliginosus,  is  also  offered 
by  seedsmen,  and  not  infrequently  under  the  name  vil- 
losus, according  to  Stebler. 

685.  Astragalus  falcatus  is  native  to  the  Caucasus  region 
and  utilized  to  a  small  extent  in  Europe  for  forage,  espe- 
cially in  Russia  and  France.  It  is  a  deep-rooted,  long- 
lived  perennial ;  leaves  pinnate  with  15  to  20  pairs  of 
leaflets ;  flowers  yellowish  in  a  spike-like  panicle.  This 
species  is  very  hardy  and  probably  will  withstand  as 
severe  conditions  as  alfalfa.  In  France  it  is  said  not  to 
be  able  to  compete  with  alfalfa  on  good  soil,  but  to  be  val- 
uable on  poor,  dry  lands.  It  begins  its  growth  very  early 
in  spring,  and  in  France  may  be  cut  three  times.  It  is 
mostly  fed  green,  and  animals  eat  it  readily. 

This  astragalus  has  grown  well  at  Arlington  Farm,  Vir- 
ginia ;  Pullman,  Washington ;  and  Akron,  Colorado.  Well- 
grown  plants  become  a  foot  or  more  in  diameter  and  2  to 


570        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

2J  feet  high.  The  commercial  seed  is  not  high  priced,  but 
much  of  it  is  "  hard  "  and  does  not  germinate.  The  crop 
is  worthy  of  further  investigation  in  connection  with  dry 
farming. 

686.  Furze  ( Ulex  europceus).  —  Furze  or  gorse  is  a 
spiny  leguminous  shrub  native  to  northern  Europe. 
The  leaves  are  very  small,  and  with  the  twigs  are  evergreen. 
The  handsome  yellow  blossoms  are  much  ike  those  of  the 
Scotch  broom. 

Furze  has  never  been  cultivated  for  forage  in  America, 
but  it  has  become  established  in  places  along  the  New 
England  coast,  and  on  the  Pacific  coast  in  Washington 
and  British  Columbia.  Its  adaptation  to  these  regions 
may  in  time  lead  to  its  utilization  for  forage. 

In  Europe  it  is  planted  more  or  less  on  sandy  or  rocky 
land,  and  the  crops  either  cut  and  fed  green  in  winter,  or 
browsed  with  sheep  and  cattle.  Where  cultivated  it  is  cut 
every  year,  as  the  year-old  branches  become  quite  woody. 


CHAPTER   XXV 

MISCELLANEOUS  HERBS    USED  AS  FORAGE 

APART  from  the  grasses  and  legumes  few  plants  are. 
worth  cultivating  for  forage  and  none  of  these  is  of  high 
importance.  Those  discussed  in  this  chapter  are  the  best 
known. 

687.  Mexican  clover  (Richardsonia  scabra)  is  wrongly 
named,  as  it  is  not  clover  at  all,  but  belongs  to  the  family 
Rubiaceoe.  In  Florida  and  other  Southern  States  it  is 
commonly  called  purslane  or  "  pusley."  Mexican  clover 
is  native  to  Mexico,  and  now  extends  along  the  Gulf  coast 
and  throughout  Florida.  In  the  latter  region  there  is 
some  question  as  to  whether  it  is  truly  native,  as  it  is  found 
almost  entirely  in  cultivated  land. 

Mexican  clover  is  an  annual  plant  much  branched  from 
the  base,  the  weak  decumbent  stems  reaching  a  length  of 
1  to  2  feet ;  leaves  opposite,  simple,  entire ;  flowers  small, 
pinkish,  crowded  into  close  heads. 

Mexican  clover  is  a  summer  annual  springing  up  in 
cultivated  land  in  spring  after  the  manner  of  crab-grass. 
It  is  especially  abundant  in  sandy  land,  springing  up  after 
cultivation  has  ceased  in  hoed  crops,  or  after  early  crops 
have  been  removed.  Under  favorable  conditions  it  makes 
a  dense  mass  of  herbage  1  foot  to  nearly  2  feet  deep. 
The  plant  is  rather  succulent  and  not  easily  cured  into 
hay,  but  when  well  cured  is  readily  eaten  by  farm  animals, 

571 


572        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

The  maximum  yield  of  hay  is  probably  about  2  tons  to  the 
acre. 

Mexican  clover  may  also  be  used  for  pasturage,  and  is 
readily  eaten  by  most  farm  animals. 

Seed  is  produced  in  abundance  and  can  easily  be  saved, 
but  there  is  no  commercial  demand,  as  the  plant  when 
once  established  volunteers  year  after  year  indefinitely. 
Strictly  speaking,  it  is  not  a  cultivated  plant  at  all,  but  a 
useful  weed  comparable  in  this  respect  to  crab-grass  and. 
bur  clover.  In  the  United  States  it  is  adapted  only  to 
Florida  and  a  relatively  narrow  region  westward  to  Texas. 
It  succeeds  best  on  sandy  soils. 

688.  Prickly  pear  (Opuntia  spp.). —  These  "  pears  " 
are  all  natives  to  America.  Some  of  the  larger  species 
which  grow  to  a  height  of  from  3  to  6  feet  or  more  and 
which  have  flat,  oblong  or  circular  joints,  have  long  been 
utilized  for  forage.  Some  of  these  species,  especially 
those  which  are  nearly  spineless,  were  long  ago  introduced 
into  northern  Africa,  where  they  are  grown  quite  extensively, 
not  only  for  the  fruit  but  as  feed  for  camels  and  bullocks. 
In  Texas  they  have  been  used  as  forage,  especially  during 
periods  of  drought,  for  50  years  or  more.  In  recent  years 
their  cultivation  for  forage  has  received  considerable  atten- 
tion in  the  United  States. 

In  the  United  States  the  larger  species  of  Opuntia  are 
well  adapted  only  to  southern  Texas  and  California  and 
portions  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico.  They  will  with- 
stand a  temperature  as  low  as  20°  Fahrenheit  for  a  short 
time,  but  where  the  temperature  often  falls  lower  their 
culture  is  not  advisable.  The  spiny  species  especially 
endure  periods  of  drought  remarkably  well,  but  to  obtain 
a  satisfactory  growth  under  cultivation  a  good  supply 
of  moisture  is  necessary.  The  root  is  comparatively 


MISCELLANEOUS  HERBS    USED  AS  FORAGE     573 

shallow,  and  without  a  good  supply  of  soil  moisture  the 
growth  is  exceedingly  slow.  Prickly  pears  are  like  other 
plants,  in  that  the  best  growth  is  secured  on  the  best  soils, 
although  the  plants  will  make  some  growth  on  any  type 
of  soil  so  long  as  it  is  well  drained  and  there  is  sufficient 
moisture  for  growth.  All  of  the  species  thrive  best  in 
regions'  where  there  is  a  season  of  low  moisture  supply  dur- 
ing which  the  plants  become  semi-dormant. 

Prickly  pears  may  be  propagated  either  by  seed  or  by 
plant  joints.  Propagation  by  seed  is,  however,  more 
costly  and  a  longer  time  must  elapse  before  the  plants  can 
be  harvested.  Griffiths  finds  that  there  is  considerable 
difference  between  plants  of  the  same  species  grown  from 
seed  and  propagated  from  cuttings.  The  latter  tend  to 
be  tree-like,  while  the  former  are  headed  on  the  ground 
and  without  distinct  trunks.  In  propagating  vegetatively, 
single  joints  1  to  3  years  old  should  be  used,  as  younger 
joints  are  not  as  certain  and  do  not  start  off  as  vigorously 
as  the  older  ones.  Old  trunks  which  have  lost  their  joint 
character  are  also  satisfactory.  It  is  preferable  to  cut 
the  joints  below  the  articulation.  In  planting,  the  best 
plan  is  to  have  the  joint  covered  \  to  f  of  its  length.  In 
plantings  thus  far  made  the  plants  have  been  put  3  feet 
apart  in  rows  6  feet  wide,  but  with  the  larger  sorts  8-foot 
rows  are  probably  more  advantageous.  When  thus 
planted  they  can  be  easily  cultivated,  and  better  results 
are  secured  by  cultivating  fields  often  enough  to  maintain 
a  good  tilth  and  destroy  weeds. 

The  prickly  pears  can  be  harvested  and  fed  at  any  time 
of  the  year.  Cattle,  however,  do  not  like  the  young 
joints  and  there  is  therefore  considerable  waste  in  har- 
vesting the  plants  while  growth  is  active.  In  California 
it  has  been  found  inadvisable  to  harvest  them  in  winter 


574:         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

from  December  to  March,  as  during  the  cool  season  the 
remaining  portion  of  the  stem  is  likely  to  rot  instead  of 
healing  over. 

Under  moderately  favorable  conditions  yields  of  20  to 
25  tons  of  green  matter  to  the  acre  may  be  obtained. 

Prickly  pears  are  readily  eaten  by  cattle,  hogs,  sheep 
and  goats.  The  spineless  ones  may  be  fed  directly, 
but  the  spiny  sorts  require  preliminary  treatment.  The 
spines  may  be  removed  by  singeing  either  with  a  brush 
fire  or  by  means  of  a  gasoline  torch,  or  the  plants  may  be 
chopped  into  pieces  and  piled  into  heaps  when  the  spines 
become  softened  so  that  they  do  not  trouble  animals,  or 
the  whole  plant  may  be  steamed  in  vats.  The  feeding 
value  is  low,  as  from  80  to  90  per  cent  or  more  of  the  plant 
consists  of  water.  Nevertheless,  very  satisfactory  results 
have  been  obtained  in  using  prickly  pears  as  roughage 
feed  for  dairy  and  beef  cattle  as  well  as  for  hogs,  sheep  and 
goats. 

Under  Texas  conditions  some  of  the  spiny  sorts  have 
given  more  satisfactory  results  than  the  spineless  ones. 
The  latter  are  more  subject  to  damage  by  rabbits. 

689.  Sunflower  (Helianthus  annuus).  —  The  sunflower 
is  native  to  the  western  United  States,  where  the  wild  form 
often  occupies  extensive  areas.  It  is  an  annual  with  a 
stout,  erect,  usually  simple  stem  which  becomes  woody ; 
alternate  ovate  petioled  leaves ;  and  one  or  more  large 
half -nodding  heads  with  a  black  disk  and  numerous  golden- 
yellow  rays.  Under  cultivation  numerous  varieties  have 
been  developed,  some  with  all  the  flowers  ligulate.  The 
agriculturally  valuable  sorts  are  those  which  produce  a 
single  large  head,  which  may  be  8  to  12  inches  in  diameter. 

Sunflowers  are  grown  extensively  in  Russia  for  the 
seeds,  which  are  used  both  for  poultry  feed  and  for  oil  pro- 


MISCELLANEOUS  HERBS    USED  AS  FORAGE     575 


duction.  In  America  their  culture  has  not  been  large, 
partly  from  the  fact  that  there  are  several  insects  that  live 
naturally  in  the  seeds. 

The  plants  are  cultivated  much  after  the  manner  of 
corn  in  rows  28  to  36  inches  wide,  with  the  plants  a  foot 
apart  in  the  rows. 

Sometimes  sunflowers  are  grown  thickly  and  cut  for 
fodder,  but  the  woody  nature  of  the  plants  makes  them 
undesirable  for  this  purpose. 

At  the  New  Hampshire  Experiment  Station  three  varie- 
ties gave  the  following  yields  of  heads  to  the  acre :  Rus- 
sian, 23,958  pounds ;  White  Russian,  19,360  pounds ; 
and  Grey,  20,812  pounds. 

In  Ontario  they  have  been  grown  to  some  extent  as  a 
forage  crop,  the  heads  being  put  into  silos  with  corn. 
There  seems,  however,  to  be  no  economy  in  this  practice. 
At  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College  three  varieties  have 
been  grown  continuously  for  a  period  of  years,  the  result- 
ing yield  data  being  as  follows :  — 


AVERAGE 

AVERAGE  YIELD  TO  THE  ACRE 

VARIETIES 

DIAMETER 

OP 

25  HEADS 
(10  yrs.) 

AVERAGE 
HEIGHT 

(13yrs.) 

9 

Heads 
(13  yrs.) 

Whole 
Crop 
(13  yrs.) 

Grain 
(12  yrs.) 

Inches 

Inches 

Tons 

Tons 

Bushels 

Mammoth  Russian 

7.29 

100 

5.97 

18.05 

74.7 

White  Beauty    .     . 

7.38 

87 

5.60 

16.18 

74.4 

Black  Giant       .     . 

7-.08 

107 

6.32 

22.36 

72.0 

According  to  the  last  census,  the  total  area  of  cultivated 
sunflowers  in  the  United  States  was  4731  acres,  which 
yielded  63,677  bushels  of  seed.  Illinois,  with  3979  acres, 
produced  most  of  the  crop;  namely,  49,064  bushels. 


576        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

690.  Spurrey  (Spergula  saliva}.  —  Cultivated  spurrey 
has  been  much  confused  with  the  very  similar  corn 
spurrey  (Spergula  arvensis).  The  latter  is  generally  in- 
troduced in  America  as  a  rather  harmless  weed  in  culti- 
vated soil.  Common  spurrey  was  cultivated  for  forage 
in  Europe  in  1566  and  probably  much  earlier. 

Spurrey  is  much  employed  as  a  catch  crop  and  for 
green  manure  on  sandy  lands  in  north  central  Europe, 
especially  France,  Belgium,  Holland,  Germany,  Denmark 
and  Russia.  It  is  adapted  to  a  moist,  cool  growing  season, 
and  under  such  conditions  will  produce  a  crop  of  green 
fodder  12  to  14  inches  high  in  7  or  8  weeks.  Three  crops 
may  thus  be  grown  on  the  same  piece  of  land  in  a  season, 
the  first  being  sown  as  soon  as  danger  of  frost  is  over; 
or  one  crop  may  be  grown  after  a  crop  of  winter  grain  is 
harvested  and  before  another  is  planted.  It  is  often  sown 
with  a  grain  crop  in  spring,  and  after  it  has  grown  in  the 
stubble,  used  as  pasture.  If  sown  alone,  it  is  cut  when  in 
bloom  and  fed  green  or  cured  into  hay,  the  latter  being 
rather  difficult,  as  the  plant  is  quite  succulent.  The  value 
of  spurrey  for  sandy  lands  in  Europe  is  so  great  that 
some  writers  have  called  it  the  "  clover  of  sandy  soils." 

Spurrey  has  often  been  tested  in  America,  beginning 
with  1853,  but  thus  far  it  has  been  but  little  used.  One 
crop  can  be  grown  in  early  spring  and  another  in  fall  if 
the  frosts  are  not  too  early.  The  plant  languishes,  how- 
ever, in  our  hot  midsummers,  to  which  it  is  not  adapted. 
Young  plants  do  not  withstand  frost,  but  when  well 
grown  ordinary  frosts  are  not  .injurious. 

The  most  extensive  investigations  were  those  conducted 
on  the  sandy  Jack  pine  land  of  Michigan.  The  results 
reported  were  very  promising,  but  the  culture  of  the  crop 
does  not  seem  to  have  become  established.  At  Grayling, 


MISCELLANEOUS  HERBS    USED  AS  FORAGE     577 

Michigan,  seed  yields  of  8  to  12  bushels  an  acre  were 
secured.  There  is  likelihood,  however,  that  spurrey  may 
in  time  be  a  useful  plant  in  America  on  very  sandy  lands 
in  the  Northern  States,  when  economic  conditions  will 
justify  their  development.  On  better  lands  it  is  not  likely 
ever  to  be  used. 

In  Germany  the  hay  yields  are  said  to  be  about  6000 
pounds  and  the  seed  yields  450  to  600  pounds  an  acre. 
The  straw  is  nearly  as  good  feed  as  the  hay. 

Spurrey  has  sometimes  been  condemned  as  a  weed,  but 
such  references  belong  to  corn  spurrey  and  not  to  the 
cultivated  plant.  The  seed  is  small,  one  pound  containing 
1,350,000.  The  usual  rate  of  seeding  is  15  to  20  pounds 
to  the  acre. 

Another  species,  the  Giant  Spurrey  (Spergula  maxima), 
has  also  been  cultivated  since  1841.  This  is  a  larger  plant 
with  larger  seeds,  740,000  weighing  one  pound.  It  reaches 
its  growth  in  10  to  12  weeks  and  ripens  its  seed  in  16 
weeks.  Unlike  common  spurrey,  this  species  is  adapted 
to  heavier  soils  rich  in  lime,  and  its  culture  is  of  much  less 
importance.  At  the  Michigan  Upper  Peninsula  Station, 
it  was  sown  July  28  and  cut  September  10,  giving  a  yield 
of  about  3.5  tons  hay  to  the  acre. 

691.  Yarrow  (Achillea  millefolium),  in  some  of  its  numer- 
ous forms,  is  native  throughout  the  north  temperate  zone. 
The  plant  has  the  strong  odor  of  chamomile,  but  cattle 
and  sheep  eat  it  when  young.  It  is  a  long-lived,  deep- 
rooted  perennial ;  leaves  pinnately  divided  into  very 
fine,  numerous  segments ;  heads  numerous,  small,  white- 
rayed,  in  a  dense  flat  umbel. 

Yarrow  will  grow  in  any  type  of  soil  if  well  drained  and, 
because  of  its  persistence,  has  been  used  in  pasture  mix- 
tures for  poor,  hilly  lands  in  Europe.  It  will  withstand 

2p 


578        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

heavy  trampling  and  close  grazing,  and  if  kept  closely 
clipped  on  lawns,  makes  a  fine  turf.  The  seed  is  very 
small,  one  pound  containing  1,667,000  seeds. 

At  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College  it  gave  a  yield  to 
the  acre  of  3.5  tons  green  matter  or  .9  tons  of  hay. 

692.  Sachaline  (Polygonum  sachalinense)  is  a  native  of 
the  island  of  Saghalien.     It  was  introduced  into  cultiva- 
tion in  1869  as  an  ornamental  and  has  been  used  for  this 
purpose  ever  since.     In  1893  it  was  considered  in  France 
to  possess  some  value  as  forage,  and  in  the  succeeding 
years  was  much  advertised  and  extravagant  claims  made 
for  it. 

The  plant  is  a  stout  perennial  herb,  spreading  by  root- 
stocks,  and  growing  to  a  height  of  6  to  10  feet ;  the  leaves 
are  heart-shaped,  and  the  greenish  flowers  inconspicuous. 
Well-established  plants  produce  an  abundance  of  herbage, 
and  this  is  eaten  readily  by  all  farm  animals.  The  habit 
of  the  plant  adapts  it  better  to  green  feeding  and  possibly 
silage  than  for  dry  fodder.  In  Germany  it  is  said  to 
yield  8  to  16  tons  green  matter  to  the  acre. 

The  difficulty  with  sachaline  as  a  forage  crop  is  that  it 
is  troublesome  to  start,  hard  stemmed,  and  does  not  yield 
more  than  corn  or  sorghum.  Its  rootstock  habit  makes 
it  rather  difficult  to  destroy  promptly,  but  it  is  never 
troublesome  as  a  weed.  Its  only  practicable  use  would 
seem  to  be  to  furnish  an  abundance  of  green  feed  from  a 
small  area  without  planting  each  year. 

Sachaline  was  tested  at  many  of  the  American  experi- 
ment stations,  but  has  not  commended  itself  as  worthy  of 
culture  except  as  an  ornamental.  Plants  may  be  started 
either  by  seeds  or  propagated  by  rootstocks. 

693.  Burnet  (Sanguisorba  minor)  is  a  native  of  Europe. 
It  was  first  cultivated  in  England  about  1760  as  a  pasture 


MISCELLANEOUS  HERBS    USED  AS   FORAGE     579 

plant,  and  since  that  time  has  been  used  in  England  and 
France.  It  is  a  deep-rooted  perennial  that  withstands 
heavy  pasturing,  and  in  England  continues  to  grow  during 
most  of  the  winter.  For  these  reasons  it  is  commonly 
used  in  pasture  mixtures,  especially  on  poor,  dry  hills 
where  the  soil  is  calcareous. 

On  good  land,  plants  will  grow  2  feet  high,  and  under 
such  conditions  yield  as  much  as  6  tons  of  green  matter 
to  the  acre.  Burnet  is,  however,  not  well  adapted  to  such 
use. 

In  America  burnet  has  not  yet  been  found  sufficiently 
valuable  to  justify  cultivation.  It  has  been  tested  at 
many  experiment  stations,  but  mostly  in  small  plots 
and  not  as  a  pasture  plant.  From  the  fact  that  it 
has  become  spontaneous  in  New  England,  it  may  be 
worthy  of  more  attention  as  a  pasture  plant  for  that 
region. 

At  the  Utah  Experiment  Station  a  small  plot  yielded 
hay  at  the  rate  of  1567  pounds  to  the  acre. 

694.  Buckhorn  (Plantago  lanceolata) ,  or  narrow-leaved 
plantain,  is  a  native  of  Europe,  but  has  become  a  common 
weed  nearly  everywhere  in  America,  having  been  intro- 
duced as  an  impurity  in  grass  and  clover  seeds.  It  is  a 
long-lived  perennial  which  maintains  itself  firmly  on  any 
soil  so  long  as  it  is  well  drained.  On  this  account  buckhorn 
has  been  used  more  or  less  in  Europe  in  pasture  mixtures 
for  poor  hill  lands,  and  to  some  extent  has  also  been 
included  in  hay  mixtures.  In  America  it  is  commonly 
looked  upon  as  a  troublesome  weed,  especially  in  alfalfa 
and  red  clover.  The  herbage,  however,  is  readily  grazed 
upon  by  sheep  and  cattle  and  eaten  when  cured  into  hay. 
As  a  pasture  plant  it  is  apparently  deserving  of  more  con- 
sideration than  it  has  received,  especially  for  thin,  stony 


580        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 

soils.  It  is  probably  never  necessary  to  sow  buckhorn, 
as  more  or  less  seed  is  usually  mixed  with  grass  and  clover 
seeds,  and  where  once  established  the  plant  spreads  abun- 
dantly by  its  seed.  While  the  plant  is  justly  condemned 
as  a  troublesome  weed  in  lawns  and  elsewhere,  its  value 
for  pasturage  should  not  be  overlooked. 

695.  Prickly  comfrey  (Symphytum  asperrimum)  is  a 
perennial  herb  native  to  the  Caucasus  region.  The  plant 
has  a  large  taproot  8  or  9  feet  deep  ;  stems  2  to  4  feet  high  ; 
leaves  oblong,  large,  rough,  sometimes  a  foot  or  more  long ; 
flowers  tubular,  bright-blue,  nodding  in  one-sided  clusters. 
The  plant  is  hardy,  withstanding  the  winters  in  Ontario 
and  succeeding  well  in  most  of  the  United  States. 

It  was  introduced  into  England  as  early  as  1801  as  an 
ornamental,  and  beginning  with  1830  has  from  time  to 
time  been  praised  as  a  forage  plant,  especially  to  furnish 
green  feed  for  hogs,  sheep  and  cows. 

The  seed  of  prickly  comfrey  is  not  very  satisfactory, 
so  the  plant  is  usually  propagated  by  divisions  of  the  crown 
or  by  sections  of  the  taproot.  On  rich  soil  with  intensive 
cultivation  prickly  comfrey  may  be  cut  green  from  3  to 
6  times  in  a  season,  and  the  yield  is  said  to  range  from 
10  to  50  tons  of  green  matter  to  the  acre.  The  plants 
are  long-lived  and  are  said  to  produce  abundantly  for 
15  to  20  years. 

The  plant  has  been  tested  by  a  number  of  experiment 
stations,  but  has  never  come  into  much  use  in  America. 
Yields  have  been  reported  by  various  American  experi- 
ment stations  in  green  matter  to  the  acre  as  follows  :  — 

Ontario  Agricultural  College,  9|  tons  in  4  cuttings  ; 
New  York  (Geneva),  14  to  16  tons;  Vermont,  46  tons ; 
North  Carolina,  6J  to  17 \  tons ;  Wisconsin,  33  J  tons. 

Even  with  these  large  yields  comfrey  can  hardly  compete 


MISCELLANEOUS  HERBS    USED  AS  FORAGE     581 

with  other  forage  crops.  At  the  Wisconsin  Experiment 
Station  the  yield  of  dry  matter  to  the  acre  for  red  clover 
was  23  per  cent  greater  than  that  of  comfrey.  At  the  New 
York  Experiment  Station  alfalfa  yielded  16  tons  of  green 
matter  as  compared  to  14  tons  by  prickly  comfrey.  At 
the  Pennsylvania  Experiment  Station  the  yield  of  diges- 
tible matter  by  prickly  comfrey  was  considerably  less  than 
that  produced  by  either  Kafir  corn  or  cowpeas. 

The  value  of  prickly  comfrey  would  seem  to  be  restricted 
entirely  to  that  of  a  soilage  crop  where  a  large  amount  of 
green  matter  is  to  be  grown  on  a  limited  acreage,  but  even 
in  this  respect  it  is  surpassed  by  other  crops.  As  a  silage 
crop  it  has  been  used  somewhat,  but  the  product  is  said 
to  be  disagreeable  in  odor.  Animals  are  somewhat  averse 
to  eating  comfrey  at  first,  either  green  or  preserved,  but 
soon  acquire  a  taste  for  it. 

696.  Australian  saltbush  (Atriplex  semibaccata) .  —  This 
plant  is  native  to  alkali  lands  in  Australia,  where  it  has 
long  been  recognized  as  a  valuable  natural  forage  for  sheep. 
It  was  introduced  into  the  United  States  in  the  hope  that 
it  would  be  profitable  as  a  crop  to  grow  on  lands  too  alka- 
line for  ordinary  crops.  This  hope,  however,  has  not  been 
realized,  and  about  all  that  is  cultivated  are  a  few  fields 
to  supply  the  small  demand  for  seed  which  still  persists 
from  the  advertising  the  plant  received.  In  southern 
California  the  Australian  saltbush  has  become  naturalized 
and  moderately  aggressive  in  a  few  places,  but  elsewhere 
it  has  not  shown  this  trait. 

After  Atriplex  semibaccata  was  introduced,  many  other 
species  from  Australia  and  South  Africa  were  tested. 
Many  of  them  grow  well  and  some  are  quite  ornamental, 
but  none  of  them  has  come  into  use  as  a  crop. 

On  the  whole,  the  introduced  species  of  Atriplex  are 


582        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

little,  if  any,  superior  to  the  numerous  native  species  that 
grow  on  the  alkaline  lands  of  the  West.  None  of  the 
species  yet  introduced  has  shown  any  tendency  to  spread 
and  become  aggressive,  except  the  European  Atriplex 
hastata  L.  in  the  Columbia  Basin. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 

ROOT  CROPS  AND  OTHER  COMPARABLE 
FORAGES 

ROOT  crops  were  all  developed  primarily  for  use  as 
human  food  and  are  still  mainly  grown  for  this  purpose. 
They  are  similarly  useful,  however,  as  rich  feed  for  do- 
mestic animals,  and  where  they  can  be  grown  more  cheaply 
than  grain  are  important  for  such  use. 

697.  Root  crops.  —  This  general  phrase  is  used  somewhat 
loosely  in  agronomic  literature.  In  the  broadest  sense 
it  includes  all  plants  whose  roots,  tubers,  bulbs  or  other 
underground  vegetative  parts  are  utilized.  More  gener- 
ally, tubers,  such  as  potatoes,  and  bulbs,  such  as  onions, 
are  excluded.  As  usually  employed  the  term  includes 
primarily  beets  or  mangels,  rutabagas,  turnips  and  carrots. 
Some  other  roots  used  as  forage  are  cassava,  artichokes, 
sweet  potatoes  and  chufas,  but  these  are  adapted  to 
warmer  climates.  In  a  looser  usage  rape,  kale  and  cabbage 
have  been  included  with  "  root  crops."  The  German 
term  hackfruchte  or  "  hoe  crops  "  is  even  less  definite, 
including  not  only  ordinary  root  crops,  but  pumpkins, 
cabbage  and  kale. 

All  of  the  root  crops  used  for  forage  are  also  used  as 
vegetables  for  human  food,  but  the  varieties  grown  for 
forage  are  the  larger,  coarser  ones  which  produce  corre- 
spondingly heavier  yields. 

583 


584        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

Root  crops  for  forage  comprise  in  America  but  a  small 
portion  of  the  root  crops  grown.  Much  the  larger  part  of 
the  "  root  "  crop  is  grown  for  vegetables  and  the  acreage  of 
beets  for  sugar  is  far  greater  than  that  of  roots  for  forage. 

The  portion  of  the  plant  harvested  in  "  root  "  crops  is 
truly  a  thickened  root  in  cassava,  chuf as  and  sweet  pota- 
toes. In  beets,  carrots,  rutabagas  and  turnips,  it  is  partly 
root  and  partly  stem  which  merge  insensibly  together. 

A  root  crop  may  replace  any  other  cultivated  crop  in  a 
rotation.  As  a  rule  four  or  more  years  should  elapse  be- 
fore the  same  or  a  related  root  crop  is  grown  on  the  same 
.piece  of  land,  as  otherwise  the  damage  -by  insects  and 
disease  is  apt  to  be  large. 

698.  Importance  of  root  crops.  —  Root  crops  for  forage 
are  extensively  grown  for  stock  feed  in  northern  Europe, 
especially  Great  Britain,  Ireland,  Germany,  Denmark 
and  Scandinavia.  In  America  they  have  thus  far  been 
grown  mainly  in  Canada.  In  the  United  States  they  are 
nowhere  important,  but  according  to  the  thirteenth  census 
are  most  largely  grown  in  the  states  of  California,  Colo- 
rado, Utah,  New  Mexico,  Wisconsin,  Washington,  Oregon, 
Michigan  and  New  York  in  order.  The  large  use  of 
forage  roots  in  the  first  iour  states  is  probably  associated 
with  beet  culture  for  sugar. 

On  the  accompanying  map  is  shown  the  number  of 
acres  of  roots  for  forage  in  each  state,  according  to  the 
Thirteenth  United  States  Census,  and  in  each  province 
according  to  the  Fifth  Canadian  Census. 

In  a  general  way  the  lack  of  importance  of  root  crops 
in  the  United  States  is  correlated  with  the  extensive  cul- 
ture of  corn,  which  supplies  a  cheap  grain  feed  for  live 
stock.  In  northern  localities,  on  the  Pacific  Coast  and 
at  high  altitudes  where  corn  or  other  equally  cheap  grain 


ROOT  CROPS  AND  OTHER  COMPARABLE  FORAGES    585 

cannot  be  grown,  root  crops  furnish  the  most  satisfactory 
substitute.  One  pound  of  dry  matter  in  root  crops  is 
considered  about  equal  in  feeding  value  to  one  pound  of 
grain. 

Perhaps  the  principal  reason  why  root  crops  are  not 
grown  where  corn  or  grain  sorghums  can  be  produced  is 
the  large  amount  of  hand  labor  required  by  the  former. 


FIG.  62.  —  Root  crops  1909-1910.     Figures  =  acres. 

If  such  be  the  explanation,  root  crops  are  likely  to  become 
more  important  as  population  becomes  denser.  At  the 
Cornell  Experiment  Station  the  average  cost  for  four 
years  of  producing  one  acre  of  mangels  was  $77.28  as  con- 
trasted with  $40.77  for  corn.  The  cost  per  pound  of  dry 
matter  was  low  enough  to  be  a  profitable  substitute  for 
part  of  the  grain  rations. 

699.  Kinds  of  root  crops.  —  The  most  important  root 
crops  grown  for  forage  are  mangels  and  sugar  beets  (Beta 


586        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

vulgaris),  rutabaga  (Brassica  campestris),  turnip  (Brassica 
rapa),  carrot  (Daucus  carota)  and  parsnip  (Pastinaca 
saliva).  These  are  all  cultivated  as  vegetables;  their 
culture  on  a  large  scale  is  by  essentially  the  same  methods. 
All  of  these  root  crops  are  best  adapted  to  regions  with  a 
cool  growing  season,  and  hence  their  culture  is  most  impor- 
tant northward.  Southward  the  mangel  and  the  turnip 
are  grown  more  successfully  than  the  others. 

All  of  these  root  crops  require  a  fertile,  loamy  soil  to 
secure  the  largest  yields.  They  are  nearly  always  grown 
in  rows  wide  enough  to  permit  of  easy  cultivation.  The 
culture  of  most  of  them,  however,  involves  considerable 
hand  labor,  especially  in  thinning  the  rows. 

700.  Comparison  of  various  root  crops.  —  Inasmuch 
as  mangels,  sugar  beets,  rutabagas,  turnips,  carrots  and 
parsnips  are  all  adapted  to  very  closely  the  same  conditions, 
the  problem  arises  as  to  which  is  to  be  preferred.  In 
Great  Britain  more  than  3  times  as  many  rutabagas  are 
grown  as  mangels,  while  in  Germany,  the  reverse  is  the 
case.  In  Canada  the  acreage  of  mangels  in  1910  was 
53,576  against  76,488  for  rutabagas  and  turnips. 

In  feeding  value  these. roots  apparently  stand  in  the 
following  order,  sugar  beets  highest,  followed  by  parsnips, 
mangels,  rutabagas,  carrots,  turnips,  but  the  differences 
are  small. 

The  yields  of  mangels  and  rutabagas  are  decidedly 
greater  than  other  roots,  so  the  latter  are  grown  more  for 
special  purposes  or  for  variety.  At  the  Ontario  Agri- 
cultural College,  the  average  yields  to  the  acre  for  26  years 
have  been  27,600  pounds  mangels,  25,740  pounds  ruta- 
bagas and  20,760  pounds  carrots.  The  yields  at  five 
different  stations  are  compiled  in  the  accompanying 
table:— 


EOOT  CROPS  AND  OTHER  COMPARABLE  FORAGES    587 


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588 


FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 


The  relation  of  roots  to  corn  and  other  crops,  as  secured 
in  Maine,  show  that  even  in  the  Northern  States  corn  may 
outyield  any  root  crop  :  — 

SUMMARY  OF  AVERAGE  YIELDS  OF  FODDER  AND    ROOT   CROPS 
FOR  1890  AND  1891,  MAINE  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


CROP 

ACRE 
YIELD  OF 
CROP  AS 
HARVESTED 

ACRE 
YIELD  OF 
DRY  MATTER 

ACRE 
YIELD  OF 
DIGESTIBLE 
DRY  MATTER 

Southern  corn        

Pounds 

39645 

Pounds  * 

5  580 

Pounds 

3  850 

31,695 

3,415 

2978 

Hungarian  grass   

18910 

4  680 

2  967 

Sugar  beets       

17,645 

2  590 

2  447 

English  flat  turnips  .... 
Field  corn  (flint)  
Sweet  corn             . 

28,500 
21,690 
18260 

2,559 
3,110 
2  671 

2,375 

2,208 
1  870 

Mangel-wurzels     

15,375 

1  613 

1  266 

Peas  (seed)        
Timothy  hay  (assumed  crop) 

1,665 
4,000 

1,415 
3,500 

1,231 
2,065 

701.  Roots  compared  with  corn  and  sorghum.  —  At 
the  Michigan  Experiment  Station  the  yield  of  various 
root  crops,  both  green  and  dry,  was  compared  with  those 
of  corn  and  sorghum. 

COMPARATIVE  ACRE  YIELDS  OF  ROOT  CROPS,  CORN  AND 
SORGHUM  AT  THE  MICHIGAN  EXPERIMENT  STATION 


CROP 

GREEN  WEIGHT 
TO  THE  ACRE 

DRY  WEIGHT 
TO  THE  ACRE 

Carrots       

Pounds 
28,836 

Pounds 

3322 

Long  red  mangels 

25  616 

3  381 

Tankard  mangels     

21  744 

2  111 

Rutabagas 

31  028 

3  742 

Sugar  beets          .          .... 

28320 

5347 

Corn      

29,684 

8656 

Sorsrhum 

38.676 

7.700 

ROOT  CROPS  AND  OTHER  COMPARABLE  FORAGES    589 

These  results  agree  with  those  obtained  by  many  other 
experimenters ;  namely,  that  where  corn  or  sorghum  will 
grow  well,  they  will  produce  larger  yields  of  dry  matter 
than  root  crops. 

RAPE  (Brassica  napus) 

702.  Rape  is  a  native  of  temperate  Europe.     The  wild 
plant  is  an  annual,  but  the  cultivated  form  may  be  either 
annual  or  biennial.     The  former  is  grown  only  for  the 
seed,  from  which  oil  is  extracted;    and  the  latter  mainly 
for  forage.     Like  the  other .  Brassicas  it  is  best  adapted 
to  a  cool  growing  season,  and  for  heavy  yields  rich,  moist 
soil  is  required. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  rape,  but  the  Dwarf 
Essex  is  practically  the  only  one  grown  for  forage.  An- 
other variety,  the  Dwarf  Victoria,  is  nearly  as  good,  but 
in  long-continued  trials  at  the  Ontario  Agricultural  Col- 
lege proved  somewhat  inferior. 

703.  Importance.  —  Rape  is  not  an  important  forage 
crop  in  North  America,  but  deserves  far  more  attention 
than  it  has  received.     It  is  especially  valuable  for  furnish- 
ing good  feed  in  autumn  and  early  winter  when  little  other 
green  feed  is  available.     If  thus  utilized,  it  conserves  the 
stock  of  hay  and  silage  for  winter  use. 

704.  Seeding.  —  Rape  may  be  sown  in  the  North  from 
May  1  to  about  the  end  of  July.     In  Canada  June  15  is 
about  the  best  date.     In  the  South  fall  sowing  is  most 
satisfactory.     The  seed  should  be  planted  about  one-half 
inch  deep,  as  with  deeper  planting  the  stand  is  likely  to 
be  very  imperfect.      At  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College 
large  seed  gave  decidedly  better  yields  than  either  medium 
or  small  seeds. 

When  rape  is  sown  alone,  the  seed  bed  should  be  well 


590        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR    CULTURE 

prepared.  Three  methods  of  seeding  may  be  used; 
namely,  in  cultivated  rows,  in  drill  rows  and  broadcasted. 
If  planted  in  rows  to  be  cultivated,  the  rows  should  be  as 
close  as  possible  to  permit  of  easy  cultivation ;  24  to  28 
inches  is  the  usual  width  of  the  rows,  but  they  may  be  as 
narrow  as  18  inches,  or  as  wide  as  36  inches.  In  24-inch 
rows,  2  pounds  of  seed  an  acre  is  sufficient,  and  more 
than  3  pounds  should  not  be  used. 

When  planted  in  close  rows  with  a  grain  drill,  4  pounds 
of  seed  an  acre  is  used.  If  broadcasted,  the  same  or  a 
slightly  larger  amount  is  necessary.  Too  dense  seeding 
causes  crowding  and  consequently  smaller  growth. 

At  the  Ontario  Experimental  Farm  seed  was  drilled  at 
various  rates  to  the  acre  from  1.2  to  186.6  pounds.  The 
lightest  seeding  gave  the  best  results,  but  up  to  6  pounds 
there  was  no  great  difference.  The  highest  yield  in  the 
series  was  18.5  tons  and  the  lowest  14.1  tons.  At  the 
Tennessee  Experiment  Station  rape  was  seeded  March 
31,  April  16,  April  30,  May  14,  June  15  and  July.  The  last 
two  seedings  were  failures.  The  others  yielded  respec- 
tively 8.5,  7.0,  6.0  and  3.9  tons  green  crop  to  the  acre. 

705.  Place  in  rotations.  —  In  the  North  rape  is  best 
adapted  as  a  catch  crop  to  come  after  oats  or  other  spring- 
seeded  grain.     In  the  South  it  may  take  the  place  of  crim- 
son clover  or  fall-sown  grain. 

Where  rape  does  well,  it  makes  a  dense  growth  which 
tends  to  smother  out  many  weeds,  and  the  subsequent 
close  pasturing  will  destroy  many  of  the  remainder. 

706.  Sowing  with  another  crop.  —  Rape  is  sometimes 
sown  in  spring  with  or  in  a  crop  of  grain,  such  as  wheat, 
oats  or  rye.     One  method  is  to  broadcast  the  rape  when 
the  grain  is  two  or  three  inches  high,  covering  the  seed 
by  harrowing  afterwards.     Under  favorable  conditions  a 


ROOT  CROPS  AND  OTHER  COMPARABLE  FORAGES   591 

good  stand  of  rape  is  obtained,  which  in  a  few  weeks  after 
harvesting  the  grain  is  ready  for  pasturing.  At  the 
Iowa  Experiment  Station  rape  was  sown  with  oats  in 
spring,  but  it  grew  large  enough  to  interfere  somewhat 
with  the  harvesting  of  the  oat  crop. 

Sowing  rape  in  corn  at  the  last  cultivation  is  frequently 
practiced,  and  where  there  is  sufficient  moisture  for  both 
crops,  good  results  are  obtained. 

In  Oregon  rape  is  sometimes  sown  in  spring  with  red 
clover,  and  the  crops  pastured  in  fall  and  early  winter. 

707.  Utilization.  —  Rape  is  commonly  utilized  by  pas- 
turing to  sheep  or  hogs.     Cattle  eat  it  readily,  but  destroy 
a  considerable  proportion  by  trampling.     The  loss  from 
this  cause  is  less  where  the  rape  is  grown  in  rows,  as  the 
animals  tend  to  follow  the  rows.     Animals  feeding  on 
rape  consume  larger  amounts  of  salt  than  usual,  so  that 
this  should  be  freely  supplied.     It  seems  to  prevent  too 
great  a  purging  effect  which  rape  often  produces.     Most 
animals  have  to  acquire  a  taste  for  rape  before  they  will 
eat  it  readily.     Care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  bloating. 

Rape  may  also  be  used  as  a  soiling  crop.  If  fed  to 
milch  cows,  it  should  be  just  after  milking,  as  otherwise 
it  may  taint  the  milk.  At  the  Michigan  Experiment 
Station  rape  was  preserved  in  a  silo  and  the  product  was 
readily  eaten  by  cows. 

708.  Carrying  capacity  of  rape  pastures.  —  Under  fa- 
vorable conditions  rape  is  ready  to  pasture  in  8  to  10  weeks 
after  seeding.     On  this  account  it  is  often  sown  as  a  catch 
crop. 

At  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College  in  1890,  54  acres  of 
rape  were  fed  upon  by  537  sheep  and  lambs  and  18  head  of 
steers  for  59  days,  and  several  acres  were  left  unconsumed. 
In  1891,  666  lambs  fed  on  40  acres  for  over  2  months. 


592         FORAGE  PLANTS  AND    THEIR   CULTURE 

Craig  states  that  an  acre  of  good  rape  will  carry  30  hogs 
for  2  months. 

709.  Yields.  —  Yields  of  rape  range  from  5  to  30  tons 
an  acre  green  weight.     The  average  yield  on  the  experi- 
mental plots  at  Guelph,  Ontario,  for  6  years  was    20.1 
tons  and  the  maximum  27.7  tons.     Yields   to   the  acre 
reported  from  other  experiment  stations  are  :  New  Hamp- 
shire, 50  tons ;   Wyoming,  14.6  tons ;  North  Dakota,  5.5, 
6.5,  14  and  5.2  tons  for  four  years  in  succession ;  Florida, 
16.59  tons;    Michigan,  6.46  tons. 

The  average  yield  of  a  good  field  of  rape  is  probably 
about  10  tons  an  acre. 

710.  Insects.  —  Rape,  like  all  plants  of  the  cabbage 
tribe,  is  much  subject  to  the  attacks  of  numerous  insects, 
and  this  factor  tends  to  restrict  its  culture  as  a  field  crop 
to  regions  where  the  growing  season  is  cool.     The  most 
troublesome  insects  are  the  Cabbage  Aphis  (Aphis  bras- 
sicce),  a  small  plant  louse  which  often  swarms   on   the 
plants  in  enormous  numbers ;   the  Cabbage-worm  (Pieris 
rapce),  a  smooth,  green  caterpillar  that  feeds  on  the  leaves  ; 
the  Harlequin  Plant-bug  (Murgantia  histrionica) ,  a  hand- 
some insect  which  sometimes  attacks  the  leaves  in  enor- 
mous numbers  and  the  Root-maggot  (Anthomyia  brassicce), 
a  small  white  grub  which  feeds  on  the  roots  near  the  sur- 
face. 

KALE  (Brassica  oleracea) 

711.  The -varieties  of  kale  used  for  forage  are  the  coarse- 
growing  sorts,   especially  the  one  known  as  Thousand- 
headed.     This  is  much  grown  in  England  and  France  as 
a  soiling  crop,  and  has  been  found  admirably  adapted  to 
the  north  Pacific  Coast,  in  Ontario,  and  in  New  England. 
The  plants  grow  to  a  height  of  3  to  5  feet  or  more  and  pro- 
duce larger  yields  of  succulent  forage,  which  can  be  fed 


BOOT  CROPS  AND  OTHER  COMPARABLE  FORAGES    593 

from  October  to  April  in  regions  where  the  winters  are 
mild.  Kale  is  usually  fed  to  dairy  cows,  but  to  avoid 
tainting  the  milk,  it  should  be  fed  just  after  milking,  25 
to  40  pounds  a  day,  in  two  feeds.  The  kale  may  be  fed 
fresh  or  allowed  to  wilt  before  feeding,  but  it  should  not 
be  cut  more  than  four  or  five  days  before  it  is  fed,  nor 
should  it  be  thrown  in  heaps,  as  it  heats  readily.  Kale 
should  not  be  fed  while  it  is  frozen.  On  the  approach  of 
freezing  weather  a  supply  sufficient  to  last  several  days 
should  be  placed  in  the  barn. 

Kale  may  be  grown  by  planting  the  seeds  in  hills 
2.5  to  3  feet  apart  and  then  thinning  to  one  plant.  It  is 
better,  however,  to  start  the  plants  in  a  seed  bed  and  then 
transplant.  The  seed  should  be  sown  as  early  in  spring 
as  conditions  will  permit,  and  the  young  plants  trans- 
planted to  well-prepared  land  when  3  or  4  inches  high. 
The  transplanting  is  commonly  done  by  dropping  the 
plants  into  furrows  at  the  proper  distance  apart  so  that 
the  next  furrow  will  cover  the  roots,  but  not  the  tops. 
The  land  is  then  rolled  and  any  "  misses  "  are  later  planted 
by  hand. 

Kale  does  not  seed  until  the  second  year,  and  on  the 
Pacific  Coast  the  plants  survive  the  winter.  As  the  plants 
vary  considerably,  it  is  advisable  to  select  the  best  plants. 
At  the  Puyallup,  Washington,  Substation,  a  yield  of  1800 
pounds  of  seed  to  an  acre  is  reported. 

Thousand-headed  kale  produced  an  average  yield  for 
6  years  of  19.1  tons  an  acre  at  the  Ontario  Agricultural 
College.  At  the  New  Hampshire  Experiment  Station 
a  yield  of  47,432  pounds  to  the  acre  was  secured. 

Another  variety  of  kale  called  marrow  cabbage, 
which  has  thick  fleshy  stems,  has  given  very  promising 
results  in  western  Washington.  This  variety  is  differ- 


594 


FOEAGE  PLANTS   AND    THEIR    CULTURE 


ent    from    marrow-stem    kale,    also    used    as    a    forage 
plant. 

712.  Diseases.  —  Kale,  like  other  plants  of  the  cabbage 

VARIETIES   OF  RAPE,   CABBAGE,   KALE,   ETC.,  AS  FARM  CROPS 


VARIETIES 

HEIGHT 

GREEN  FODDER 
TO  THE  ACRE 

1910 

Average, 
6  vr., 
1905- 
1910 

1910 

Average, 

1905- 
1910 

Button      Earliest      Drumhead 
cabbage 

Ins. 

20 
32 

21 

19 
32 

19 
30 
25 

28 

32 
24 

29 
30 
28 
34 
32 
25 
50 
50 
46 
11 

Ins. 
18 

35 
21 

18 

28 

18 
30 
29 
24 

30 
29 

30 
31 
28 
33 
32 
25 
60 
58 
55 
17 

Tons 

25.2 
21.3 

21.2 

21.8 
25.7 

20.5 
20.4 
19.6 
19.2 

23.8 
20.1 

22.3 
19.0 
20.0 
19.5 
16.9 
16.0 
12.8 
12.4 
12.4 
9.6 

Tons 

27.3 
25.4 

25.2 

24.1 
22.7 

22.1 

21.8 
21.5 
21.5 

21.4 
21.2 

20.8 
20.5 
20.4 
20.2 
19.6 
16.3 
14.8 
14.5 
13,5 
5.9 

Thousand-headed  kale     .     .     . 
Button  Giant  Drumhead  cab- 
bage 

Sutton  Earliest  Sheepfold  cab- 
bafire 

Large-seeded  Umbrella  rape     . 
Sutton  Best  of  All  Savoy  cab- 
bage                  

Large-seeded  Common  rape 
Dwarf  Victoria  rape    .... 
Marrow  collards     
Buckbee      Wonderful      Dwarf 
Bonanza  rape      ..... 

Dwarf  Essex  rape        .... 
Large-seeded     White-flowering 

Purple-sprouting  boroccoli 
Hardy  Curled  kale      .... 
Jersey  kale 

Cabbage-  leafed  rape         .     .     . 
Brussels  sprouts 

New  Chinese  mustard     .     .     . 
Bloomsdale  large-leafed  mustard 
White  mustard       
German  rape                     .     . 

ROOT  CROPS  AND  OTHER  COMPARABLE  FORAGES  595 

family,  may  be  attacked  by  various  diseases.  One  of 
the  most  common  is  club-root,  or  "  finger  and  toe  disease," 
caused  by  the  myxomycete  Plasmodiophora  brassicce. 
This  causes  the  roots  to  become  greatly  enlarged  and  mal- 
formed. There  is  no  direct  remedy,  and  the  organism 
causing  the  disease  will  live  in  the  ground  several  years. 
Rotation  is  the  best  means  of  control. 

713.  Yields  of  kale,  cabbage  and  other  brassicaceous 
plants.  —  The    relative    yields    of   various    brassicaceous 
plants  other  than  root  crops  is  well  shown  by  the  long- 
continued  tests  at  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College.     In 
these  trials  the  different  varieties  of  cabbage  taken  to- 
gether outyield  any  of  the  related  groups ;   namely,  rape, 
kale,  collards  and  similar  plants. 

JERUSALEM  ARTICHOKE  ( Helianthus  tuberosus) 

714.  The  Jerusalem  artichoke  or  topinambur  is  a  native 
of  America  from  Ontario  to  Saskatchewan  south  to  Georgia 
and  Arkansas.     It  was  cultivated  by  the  Indians  for  the 
edible   tubers,  and   was   early  introduced   into    Europe. 
The  artichoke  is  a  sunflower  with  medium-sized  heads, 
subcordate  petioled  leaves,  and  clustered  tuberous  roots. 
There  are  several  varieties,  distinguished  by  the  color  of 
the  tubers,  —  white,  yellow  or  red,  —  and  by  the  shape  of 
the  leaves,  either  narrow  or  broad. 

Artichokes  seem  to  be  less  cultivated  now  than  formerly, 
and  are  apparently  relatively  more  important  in  Europe 
than  in  America.  They  are  cultivated  much  after  the 
manner  of  potatoes,  the  tubers  being  planted  in  hills  20 
inches  apart  each  way,  or  better,  in  rows  24  to  30  inches 
wide.  The  crop  is  permitted  to  grow  until  the  plants  are 
killed  by  frost.  Artichokes  are  valuable  as  forage  chiefly 
for  hogs,  and  they  are  usually  harvested  by  turning  these 


596        FORAGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

animals  in  the  field.  The  tubers  keep  in  the  ground  all 
winter  and  usually  enough  of  them  are  left  by  the  hogs 
to  make  a  new  crop.  Indeed,  it  is  this  weedy  propensity 
of  the  artichoke  that  has  militated  much  against  its 
culture. 

The  yield  of  tubers  to  the  acre  ranges  from  4  to  18  tons, 
but  in  western  Washington  records  of  20  to  39  tons  to  the 
acre  are  reported. 

CHUFA  (Cyperus  esculentus) 

715.  The  chufa  is  apparently  native  in  the  subtropical 
regions  of  both  hemispheres,  but  its  culture  originated  in 
Mediterranean  countries.  It  is  a  sedge-like  plant  with 
creeping  rootstocks  which  produce  small  sweet  tubers 
rarely  over  1  inch  in  diameter.  The  tubers  are  eaten  as 
human  food  or  pastured  to  hogs. 

The  plant  is  propagated  by  the  tubers,  which  are  planted 
in  spring  in  rows  wide  enough  to  be  cultivated,  placing 
the  tubers  about  one  foot  apart  in  the  rows.  In  the  South 
they  are  sometimes  planted  in  corn  at  the  last  cultivation. 
One  peck  of  tubers  is  needed  to  plant  an  acre,  and  it  is  better 
to  soak  them  a  few  days  before  planting. 

Chufas  are  grown  mainly  in  the  Southern  States.  Prac- 
tically all  the  "  seed  "  is  produced  in  Georgia,  the  product 
in  1909  of  481  acres  being  12,531  bushels.  The  yields 
seem  to  vary  greatly.  At  the  Arkansas  Experiment  Sta- 
tion the  product  was  estimated  at  6992  pounds  to  the  acre. 
At  the  Alabama  Experiment  Station  the  number  of 
tubers  in  8  hills  were  counted  and  found  to  average  568. 
The  yield  to  the  acre  was  determined  as  172  bushels  green 
or  115.24  bushels  dry.  At  the  Ontario  Agricultural  Col- 
lege the  yield  averaged  22.8  bushels  an  acre.  One  bushel 
weighs  44  pounds. 


ROOT  CROPS  AND  OTHER  COMPARABLE  FORAGES    597 

At  the  Arkansas  Experiment  Station  one-fourth  acre 
of  chufas  pastured  by  hogs  was  estimated  to  produce 
138  pounds  of  pork.  At  the  Alabama  Experiment 
Station  it  was  calculated  that  an  acre  of  chufas  pastured 
to  hogs  produced  307  pounds  of  pork. 

CASSAVA  (Manihot  utilissima) 

716.  Cassava  is  a  tropical  plant  probably  native  to 
Brazil.  It  is  now  cultivated  in  all  parts  of  the  tropics, 
mainly  as  a  source  of  human  food,  and  also  as  a  basis  for 
the  manufacture  of  tapioca.  Its  culture  is  probably  more 
important  in  Java  than  in  any  other  country. 

Cassava  is  a  bushy,  branched,  woody-based  herb  com- 
monly growing  4  to  10  feet  in  height.  The  leaves  are 
palmately  divided  into  3  to  11  divisions  which  are  oblan- 
ceolate,  or  rarely  lanceolate,  and  from  5  to  10  inches  long 
and  about  1  inch  wide.  The  flowers  are  polygamo-dice- 
cious,  that  is,  some  are  staminate,  some  pistillate  and  some 
perfect.  Usually  flowers  on  one  plant  are  primarily  pis- 
tillate and  those  on  another  primarily  staminate.  The 
fleshy,  starchy  roots  grow  in  clusters  of  4  to  8  to  each  plant, 
the  largest  being  3  to  4  feet  in  length  and  2  to  3  inches 
in  diameter,  a  single  cluster  weighing  usually  5  to  10 
pounds,  but  sometimes  20  to  30  pounds. 

Cassava  is  adapted  in  the  United  States  only  to  Florida 
and  the  southern  portions  of  Georgia,  Alabama,  Missis- 
sippi, Louisiana,  the  coastal  region  of  Texas  and  California. 
The  plant  requires  abundant  moisture  during  the  growing 
season  and  preferably  a  sandy  loam  soil.  The  plants  will 
grow  well  in  clay  soils,  but  the  cost  of  harvesting  the  roots 
then  becomes  excessive. 

The  varieties  of  cassava  are  very  numerous,  but  are 
usually  put  into  two  groups,  namely,  the  sweet  and  the 


598        FOE  AGE  PLANTS  AND   THEIR   CULTURE 

bitter,  the  latter  containing  more  or  less  hydrocyanic 
acid  in  the  roots  and  therefore  poisonous.  Under  certain 
favorable  conditions  of  soil  and  climate  it  seems  that  all 
cassavas  tend  to  become  sweet,  and  under  unfavorable 
conditions  there  is  a  tendency  for  them  to  become  bitter. 

Cassava  has  been  cultivated  to  a  slight  extent  in  Florida 
for  at  least  50  years,  primarily  for  the  manufacture  of 
starch.  It  has  also  been  employed  to  some  extent  to  fur- 
nish root  forage  for  live  stock.  Cultivated  in  this  way, 
however,  it  is  probably  not  as  advantageous  on  the  whole 
as  sweet  potatoes. 

Cassava  is  commonly  propagated  by  means  of  portions 
of  the  roots  or  portions  of  the  stems  which  are  stored  in 
a  dry  place  during  winter  and  protected  against  damage 
by  frost.  The  plants  can  also  be  propagated  by  means 
of  seeds,  but  this  results  in  great  variation  and  besides  the 
plants  will  not  make  as  large  growth  in  the  same  time. 
Seed  canes  are  usually  cut  in  pieces  4  to  8  inches  in  length 
and  planted  after  all  danger  of  frost  is  over.  They  are 
usually  planted  4  feet  apart  each  way. 

One  great  trouble  with  cassava  is  the  difficulty,  at 
least  under  Florida  conditions,  of  securing  a  perfect 
stand,  as  many  of  the  canes  rot  or  otherwise  become  weak- 
ened and  do  not  produce  plants.  On  this  account  the 
yields  are  very  variable,  the  maximum  being  perhaps 
20  tons  to  the  acre. 

The  culture  of  cassava  has  never  been  very  important 
in  the  United  States  and  has  greatly  decreased  in  the 
last  20  years. 


INDEX 


Achillea  millefolium,  577. 
Adulteration  of  seeds,  71. 
Adzuki,  554. 
Aftermath,  4,  102. 
Age  of  seeds,  72. 
Aggressiveness  in  plants,  13. 
Agropyron  occidentale,  221. 

repens,  353. 

tenerum,  219. 
Agrostis  alba,  170. 

capillaris,  170. 

dispar,  170. 

vulgaris,  170. 
Aleppo-grass,  244. 
Alfalfa,  305-359. 

agricultural  history,  305. 

Arabian,  314. 

botanical  varieties,  313. 

breeding  methods,  352. 

care  of  field,  340. 

characteristics  of,  319. 

clipping,  330. 

cold  relations,  307. 

crown-gall,  356. 

cultivated  varieties,  313. 

cuttings,  336. 

diseases,  356. 

distribution  of,  312. 

dodder,  354. 

Grimm,  315. 

heat  relations,  307. 

humidity  relations,  310. 

importance  of  varieties,  316. 

improvement,  351. 

influence  of  source  of  seed,  317. 

insects,  358. 

irrigation,  337-338. 

life  period,  320. 

love-vine,  354. 

meal,  346. 

methods  of  seeding,  329. 


mixtures,  342. 

number  of  cuttings,  336. 

nurse  crops,  329. 

origin  of  name,  306. 

pasturing,  344. 

Peruvian,  314. 

pollination,  348. 

proportion  of  leaves,  stems  and 

roots,  325. 

quality  of  different  cuttings,  336. 
rate  of  seeding,  327. 
regional  strains,  318. 
root-rot,  356. 
roots,  320. 
rootstocks,  323. 
rotations,  343. 
row  cultivation,  341. 
seed,  349. 
seed-bed,  326. 
seed  production,  346. 
seeding,  327-329. 
seedlings,  323. 
shoots,  324. 
Siberian,  315. 
Sickle,  315. 
silage,  345. 

soil  moisture  relations,  322. 
soil  relations,  310. 
soiling,  345. 
statistics,  118-119. 
time  of  cutting,  333. 
time  of  seeding,  328. 
time  to  apply  irrigation,  337. 
Turkestan,  314. 
Variegated,  315. 
viability  of  seed,  350. 
weeds,  352. 
winter  irrigation,  338. 
winter-killing,  331. 
Yellow-flowered,  315. 
yellows,  358. 


599 


600 


INDEX 


Alfalfa,  —  Continued. 

yields  in  relation  to  water  supply, 

339. 

Alopecurus  pratensis,  227. 
Alsike,  405. 
Alsike  clover,  405-410. 

adaptations,  406. 

agricultural  history,  406. 

botany,  405. 

characteristics,  406. 

culture,  408. 

hay,  408. 

importance,  407. 

pasturage  value,  410. 

regional  strains,  407. 

seed,  409. 

seed-production,  409. 
Amerosporium  economicum,  511. 
Analyses,  chemical,  56—59. 
Andropogon  halepensis,  244. 

sorghum,  260-284. 
Anthomyia  brassicae,  592. 
Anthoxanthum  odoratum,  229. 
Anthyllis  vulneraria,  566. 
Aphis  brassicae,  592. 
Aphis,  sorghum,  278. 
Arachis  hypogaea,  546. 
Arctic  grass,  256. 
Army  worm,  278. 
Arrhenatherum  avenaceum,  189. 

elatius,  189. 

Artichoke,  Jerusalem,  595. 
Ash,  56.' 

Asparagus-bean,  494. 
Astragalus  falcatus,  569. 
Atriplex  hastata,  582. 

semibaccata,  581. 
Australian  brome-grass,  256. 
Australian  oats,  256. 
Australian  redtop,  258. 
Australian  saltbush,  581. 
Autographa  gamma  calif  ornica,  360. 
Avena  elatior,  189. 
Axonopus  compressus,  250. 

Bacillus  sorghi,  277. 
tumefaciens,  356. 
Bahama-grass,  237. 
Bajri,  301. 


Bareet-grass,  44. 
Bean,  Adzuki,  554. 

Asparagus,  494. 
•  Chinese,  545. 

Horse,  479,  550. 

Hyacinth,  555. 

Jack,  549. 

Knife,  550. 

Lyon,  545. 

Moth,  553. 

Mung,  551. 

Overlook,  550. 

Pearson,  550. 

Soy,  513-536. 

Sword,  550. 

Velvet,  544. 

Yokohama,  546. 
Bee  clover,  417. 
Beggarweed,  548. 
Bermuda-grass,  237-244,  353. 

adaptations,  239. 

agricultural  history,  238. 

botany,  237. 

characteristics,  237. 

culture,  241. 

feeding  value,  243. 

importance,  240. 

rootstocks,  242. 

seed-production,  243. 

variability,  240. 

yields  of  hay,  242. 
Berseem,  435. 
Bird's-foot  trefoil,  568. 
Bird  vetch,  481. 
Black  medick,  435. 
Blight,  sorghum,  277. 
Blissus  leucopterus,  278. 
Bloating,  112. 
Blue  bunch-grass,  225. 
Blue-grass,  Canada,  163-166. 

adaptations,  165. 

botany,  163. 

culture,  164. 

importance,  166. 

seed,  164. 

Blue-grass,  English,  204. 
Blue-grass,  Kentucky,  154-163. 

adaptations,  156. 

botany,  154. 


INDEX 


601 


Blue-grass,  Kentucky,  —  Continued. 

characteristics,  157. 

culture,  158. 

fertilizers,  159. 

hybrids,  163. 

importance,  157. 

seed,  162. 

seed-production,  161. 

yields  of  hay,  160. 
Blue-grass,  Texas,  166-167. 
Blue-joint,  221. 
Blue-stem,  221. 

Colorado,  221. 
Bokhara  clover,  417. 
Bonavist,  555. 
Brassicaceous  plants,  595. 
Brassica  napus,  589. 

oleracea,  592. 
Breeding,  alfalfa,  351-353. 

red  clover,  403. 

sorghum,  278. 

soybeans,  536. 

timothy,  149,  150. 
Broad-bean,  479. 
Broccoli,  594. 
Brome,  Australian,  256. 

Austrian,  195. 

Awnless,  195. 

Erect,  233. 

Hungarian,  195. 

Meadow,  233. 

Russian,  195. 

Schrader's,  256. 

Smooth,  195. 

Upright,  233. 
Brome-grass,  195-203. 

adaptations,  197. 

agricultural  history,  196. 

botany,  195. 

common  names,  195. 

description,  195. 

fertilizers  for,  199. 

hay,  199. 

mixtures,  202. 

pasture  value,  202. 

rate  of  seeding,  198. 

roots,  197. 

seed,  201. 

seeding  methods,  197-198. 


seed-production,  201. 

time  of  cutting,  198. 

treatment  of  fields,  200. 

variability,  202. 
Bromus  erectus,  233. 

inermis,  196. 

Reimanni,  196. 

secalinus,  299. 

unioloides,  256,  257. 
Broom-corn  millet,  285,  295. 
Brown  hay,  2,  38. 
Browsing,  4. 
Bruchus  pisorum,  452. 
Brucophagus  funebris,  402. 
Brussels'  sprouts,  594. 
Buckhorn,  579. 
Bur  clover,  437-439. 
Burnet,  578. 
Button  clover,  437. 

Cabbage,  594-595. 
Cabbage  aphis,  592. 

worm,  592. 
Calorie,  62. 
Calorimeter,  62. 
Canada  blue-grass,  163-166. 
Canary-grass,  300. 
Canary-grass,  reed,  230-231. 

agricultural  history,  230. 

botany,  230. 

characteristics,  230. 
Canavalia  ensiformis,  549. 

gladiata,  550. 
Capacity,  carrying,  108. 
Carpet-grass,  250. 
Carrying  capacity,  108. 
Cassava,  597. 
Cat-tail  millet,  286,  301. 
Catjang,  494. 
Cat's-tail,  meadow,  124. 
Cercospora  cruenta,  511. 
Cereals  for  hay,  298. 
Cheat,  299. 
Chemical  analyses,  56. 
Chemical   composition,   relation  to 
fertility,  56. 

relation    to    stage    of    maturity, 

58,  381. 
Chess,  299. 


602 


INDEX 


Chickasaw  pea,  551. 
Chickling  vetch,  454. 
Chick-pea,  453. 
Chinch-bug,  278,  294. 
Chinese  velvet  bean,  545. 
Chufa,  596. 
Cicer  arietinum,  453. 
Clover,  Alsike,  405-410. 

anthracnose,  398. 

Bee,  417. 

black  spot,  398. 

Bokhara,  417. 

Bur,  437-439. 

chalcis,  402. 

Crimson,  426-434. 

Dutch,  411. 

flower-midge,  402. 

French,  426. 

German,  426. 

hay-worm,  403. 

Honey,  417. 

Hungarian,  410. 

Incarnate,  426. 

Italian,  426. 

Japan,  539. 

Ladino,  416. 

leaf-spot,  398. 

leaf -weevil,  402. 

Mexican,  571. 

Orel,  367. 

Persian,  434. 

Red,  361-404. 

root-borer,  401. 

Russian,  367. 

rust,  398. 

Scarlet,  426. 

sickness,  398-401. 

Sour,  425. 

Sweet,  417-425. 

White,  411-417. 
Club-root,  595. 

Coarse  forage,  statistics,  118,  119. 
Cock's-foot,  176. 
Coffee-bean,  453. 
Collards,  594,  595. 
Colletotrichum  cereale,  398. 

trifolii,  358,  398,  404. 
Color  of  seeds,  72. 
Colorado-grass,  297. 


Common  vetch,  457-467. 

adaptations,  458. 

agricultural  history,  457. 

botany,  457. 

culture,  459. 

feeding  value,  463. 

fertilizers,  464. 

harvesting  for  hay,  462. 

importance,  458. 

lime,  465. 

pasturing,  462. 

rate  of  seeding,  461. 

rotations,  463. 

seed,  466. 

seed-production,  465,  466. 

silage,  465. 

time  of  sowing,  460. 

varieties,  458. 
Concentrates,  4. 
Coracan,  296. 

Corn,  comparison  with  root  crops, 
588. 

statistics,  118,  119. 

worm,  278. 
Cost  of  seeding,  52. 
Cowpea,  491-512. 

adaptations,  492. 

agricultural  history,  491. 

Black,  498. 

Blackeye,  498. 

Botanical  origin,  491. 

Brabham,  497. 

Clay,  497. 

Congo,  498. 

correlations,  496. 

cuttings,  number  of,  501. 

disease  resistance,  511. 

Early  Buff,  498. 

feeding  value,  503. 

Groit,  497. 

hay,  501. 

hay  yields,  502. 

importance,  493. 

inoculation,  500. 

insect  enemies,  511. 

Iron,  497. 

life  period,  494. 

mixtures,  504-505. 

New  Era,  497. 


INDEX 


603 


Cowpea,  —  Continued. 

pods,  495. 

pollination,  506. 

Red  Ripper,  498. 

roots,  510. 

seeding,  method,  498. 

seeding,  rate,  498. 

seeding,  time,  499. 

seed-production,  506. 

seeds,  495,  508. 

seeds,  proportion  to  hulls,  508. 

Shinney,  497. 

Speckled,  497. 

Unknown,  497. 

uses,  493. 

varietal  distinctions,  494. 

varieties,  496. 

viability  of  seed,  509. 

Whippoorwill,  496. 

Wonderful,  497. 

yield  of  seed,  507. 
Crab-grass,  258,  353. 
Crested  dogstail,  235,  236. 
Crimson  clover,  426-434. 

adaptations,  427. 

agricultural  history,  426. 

botany,  426. 

cutting  for  hay,  431. 

description,  427. 

importance,  428. 

method  of  sowing,  430. 

other  uses,  432. 

seed,  433. 

seeding,  429. 

seed-production,  433. 

time  of  sowing,  430. 

varieties,  429. 

yields,  432. 
Crop-grass,  258. 

Crops,    classification   in    statistical 
returns,  113. 

nurse,  90. 
Crown-gall,  356. 
Crude  fiber,  56. 
Crude  protein,  56. 
Cumarin,  418. 
Curing  hay,  24. 

completion  of,  28. 

ease  of,  53. 


special  devices  for,  26. 
Cuscuta  arvensis,  354. 

epithymum,  354. 

indecora,  354. 

planiflora,  354. 
Cutting,  time  of,  22. 

alfalfa,  333. 

alsike  clover,  408. 

brome-grass,  198. 

Canada  blue-grass,  165. 

chess  (or  cheat),  299. 

common  vetch,  462. 

cowpea,  501. 

crimson  clover,  431. 

Florida  beggarweed,  549. 

Guinea-grass,  256. 

hairy  vetch,  472. 

lespedeza,  543. 

meadow  fescue,  207. 
.     meadow  foxtail,  228. 

millet,  291. 

orchard-grass,  181. 

Para-grass,  254. 

peas,  447. 

red  clover,  380. 

sorghum,  274,  275. 

soybeans,  527. 

sweet  clover,  421. 

tall  oat  grass,  192. 

timothy,  136. 

Cyamopsis  tetragonoloba,  557. 
Cynodon  dactylon,  237-244. 
Cynosurus  cristatus,  235. 
Cyperus  esculentus,  596. 

Dactylis  altaica,  177. 

aschersoniana,  177. 

glomerata,  176. 
Dakota  vetch,  439. 
Dasyneura  leguminicola,  402. 
Depth  of  seeding  or  planting,  88. 
Desmodium  tortuosum,  548. 
Digestible  nutrients,  59-62. 
Digitaria  sanguinalis,  258. 
Diplosis  sorghicola,  277. 
Disease  resistance,  cowpeas,  511. 

red  clover,  404. 

timothy,  148. 
Diseases,  alfalfa,  356. 


604 


INDEX 


Diseases,  —  Continued. 

cowpea,  511. 

kale,  594. 

meadow  fescue,  209. 

millet,  294. 

red  clover,  398. 

slender  wheat-grass,  220. 

sorghum,  277. 

soybean,  536. 

timothy,  146. 
Dogstail,  crested,  235. 
Dogs'-tooth  grass,  237. 
Dolichos  lablab,  555. 
Doob,  237. 
Durra,  273. 

Sudan,  272. 

Earth  nut,  546. 
Echinochloa  colona,  296. 

crus-galli,  286. 

frumentacea,  286. 
Egyptian  pea,  453. 
Eleusine  coracana,  286,  296. 

indica,  297. 
Energy  value,  62. 
English  blue-grass,  204. 
English  rye-grass,  211. 
Ensilage,  39. 
Erect  brome,  233. 
Ervil,  478. 
Erysiphe  polygoni,  398. 

trifolii,  358. 
Esparcet,  559. 
Esparsette,  559. 
Ether  extract,  56. 
Euchla?na  mexicana,  303. 
Eurymus  eurytheme,  360. 
Evergreen  grass,  189. 
Evergreen  millet,  244. 
Experimental  results  in  seeding,  89. 
Extravaginal  shoots,  15. 

Fagiolo,  492. 

False  guinea-grass,  244. 

False  oat-grass,  189. 

Fat,  56. 

Feed,  definition  of,  1. 

Feeding  experiments,  54,  547. 

Feeding  values,  54. 


Feeding  values,  Bermuda-grass,  243. 

common  vetch,  463. 

comparison  of,  64. 

cowpea,  503. 

hairy  vetch,  473. 

millet,  292. 

orchard-grass,  187. 

peanuts,  547. 

red  clover,  383,  384. 

root  crops,  585,  586. 

soybean,  531. 

timothy,  144. 
Fenugreek,  486. 
Fermentation  of  silage,  40. 
Fertilizers,  effect  on  chemical  com- 
position, 56. 

for  brome-grass,  199. 

for  hay  crops,  97-102. 

for  Kentucky  blue-grass,  159. 

for  red  clover,  374-376. 

for  soybeans,  528. 

for  timothy,  133. 

for  vetch,  464. 
Fescue,  Arizona,  225. 

Chewing's,  227. 

Fine-leaved,  224. 

Hard,  224. 

Meadow    (see    Meadow    fescue), 
204-209. 

Red,  226. 

Reed,  210. 

Sheep's,  223-226. 

Tall,  210. 

Various-leaved,  224. 
Festuca  arundinacea,  210. 

dumetorum,  227. 

duriuscula,  224. 

elatior,  204,  210,  211. 

gigantea,  211. 

heterophylla,  224. 

ovina,  223-226. 

pratensis,  204. 

rubra,  225. 

tenuifolia,  224. 
Feterita,  272. 
Fiber,  56. 
Field  bean,  479. 
Field  pea,  441-453. 
Finger  and  toe  disease,  595. 


INDEX 


605 


Finger-millet,  286. 

Flat  pea,  505. 

Florida  beggarweed,  548. 

velvet  bean,  544. 
Fodder,  definition,  2. 

loss  of,  in  field,  32. 
Forage    crops,    adaptation   to   con- 
ditions, 48. 

adapted  for  ensiling,  42. 

botany  of,  11. 

choice  of,  47—66. 

civilization  and,  7. 

comparative  knowledge  of,  5. 

definition,  1. 

in  Europe  and  America,  9. 

preservation  of,  21—46. 

special  purposes  for  which  grown, 
48. 

statistics  of,  113-122. 

yielding  capacity,  49. 
Fowl  meadow-grass,  167. 
Foxtail,  meadow,  227. 
Foxtail  millet,  adaptations,  287. 

agricultural  history,  286. 

culture,  290. 

diseases,  294. 

feeding  value,  292. 

German,  289. 

Golden  Wonder,  289. 

hay,  291. 

Hungarian,  290. 

importance,  288. 

injuriousness,  293. 

insects,  294. 

Kursk,  290. 

Mammoth,  289. 

seed,  293. 

seeding,  291. 

seed-production,  293. 

Siberian,  290. 

silage,  292. 

varieties,  288. 
French  rye-grass,  189. 
Fromental,  189. 
Fumigation  of  seeds,  512. 
Fungous  diseases  in  seeds,  75. 
Furze,  570. 
Fusarium,  511,  536. 

roseum,  356. 


Galega  officinalis,  568. 

Galygumber,  417. 

Garawi,  279. 

Garbanzo,  453. 

Genuineness  of  seed,  67. 

Geargeson,  42. 

German  millet,  see  Foxtail  millet. 

Germination  of  seed,  70. 

Gipsy  pea,  453. 

Glceosporium  trifolii,  398. 

Glumes,  14. 

Glycine  soja,  515. 

ussuriensis,  515. 
Goat's  rue,  568. 
Golden  crown-grass,  251. 
Goober,  546. 
Gorse,  570. 
Grain  cut  green,  statistics  of,   118, 

119. 

Gram,  Madras,  453. 
Grass,  definition  of,  4. 
Grasses,  characteristics,  14. 

wild,    salt    or   prairie,    statistics, 
118,  119. 

other  tame  and  cultivated,  119, 

120. 

Grass-pea,  454. 
Ground  nut,  546. 
Guar,  557. 

Guaranteed  seeds,  75. 
Guinea-grass,  254. 

false,  244. 

Hackfriichte,  583. 
Hairy  vetch,  467-477. 

advantages,  474. 

botany,  468. 

climatic  adaptations,  469. 

depth  of  seeding,  471. 

disadvantages,  474. 

feeding  value,  473. 

harvesting  for  hay,  472. 

inoculation,  471. 

pollination,  472. 

rate  of  seeding,  469. 

rotations,  473. 

seed-production,  474—475. 

seeds,  476. 

soil  preferences,  469. 


606 


INDEX 


Hairy  vetch,  —  Continued. 

sources  of  seed,  475. 

time  of  seeding,  470. 

uses,  471. 
Hard  seeds,  76. 
Hariali,  237. 

Harlequin  plant-bug,  592. 
Harvesting  for  hay,  ease  of,  53. 

time  of,  53. 
Hawaiian  redtop,  258. 
Hay,  alfalfa,  333. 

alsike  clover,  408. 

brome,  199. 

brown,  2,  38. 

cereals  for,  298. 

common  vetch,  462. 

cowpea,  501. 

crimson  clover,  431-432. 

curing,  24. 

definition,  2. 

field  pea,  447. 

Florida  beggarweed,  £49. 

hairy  vetch,  472. 

lespedeza,  542. 

losses  in  field,  32. 

making,  23-27. 

meadow  fescue,  207. 

millet,  291. 

orchard-grass,  181. 

perennial  rye-grass,  213. 

red  clover,  380-382. 

shrinkage,  29. 

sorghum,  275. 

soybeans,  527. 

stacks,  36. 

statistics,  37,  117-120. 

Sudan-grass,  281. 

sweet  clover,  421. 

tall  oat-grass,  192. 

timothy,  136. 
Haymaking  in  dry  weather,  23. 

under  humid  conditions,  24. 
Hay     plants,     comparison     of 

Europe  and  America,  10. 
Hedysarium  coronarium,  562. 
Helianthus  annuus,  574. 

tuberosus,  595. 
Herd-grass,  123. 
Heterodera  radicicola,  511,  536. 


Hoe  crops,  583. 
Hog  millet,  285. 
Holcus  lanatus,  232. 
Homalocenchrus  hexandrus,  44. 
Honey  clover,  417. 
Hordeum  jubatum,  353. 

murinum,  354. 
Horse-bean,  479,  550. 
Hosackia  americana,  439. 
Hoven,  112. 
Hungarian  grass,  290. 
Hungarian  millet,  290. 
Hyacinth  bean,  555. 
Hybrids,  Kentucky  blue-grass,  163. 

meadow  fescue,  209. 

perennial  rye-grass,  209. 

Texas  blue-grass,  167. 
Hylastinus  obscurus,  401. 
Hypsopygia  costalis,  403. 

Idaho  pea,  453. 
Inoculation,  natural,  17. 

artificial,  18. 
Insects,  injurious  to 

alfalfa,  358. 

cowpea,  511. 

millet,  294. 

mung  bean,  552. 

pea,  452. 

rape,  592. 

red  clover,  401. 

sorghum,  277. 

soybeans,  536. 

timothy,  146. 
Intravaginal  shoots,  15. 
Irrigation 

with  alfalfa,  51,  337,  340. 

with  alsike  clover,  406. 

with  berseem,  435. 

with  blue-grass,  161. 

with  brome-grass,  51. 

with  Guinea-grass,  255. 

with  Italian  rye-grass,  51,  211. 

with  meadow  foxtail,  228. 

with  orchard-grass,  51. 

with  peas,  449. 

with  red  clover,  376. 

with  reed  canary-grass,  231. 

with  sainfoin,  561. 


INDEX 


607 


Irrigation,  —  Continued. 

with  Shaftal  clover,  435. 

with  sulla,  562,  563. 

with  tall  oat-grass,  190. 

with  timothy,  51,  134. 

with  Western  wheat-grass,  221. 
Italian  millet,  see  foxtail  millet. 
Italian  rye-grass,  215-219. 

adaptations,  216. 

agricultural  history,  215. 

botany,  215. 

characteristics,  215. 

culture,  216. 

hay  yields,  217. 

irrigation,  216. 

seed,  218. 

seed-production,  218. 

Jack  bean,  549. 
Japan  clover,  539,  543. 

adaptations,  541. 

agricultural  history,  540. 

culture,  541. 

description,  539. 

hay,  542. 

pasturage  value,  542. 

seed-production,  543. 
Japanese  millet,  286,  294. 
Japanese  sugar  cane,  247-249. 

adaptations,  247. 

characteristics,  247. 

culture,  248. 

history,  247. 

planting,  248. 

seed-cane,  249. 

utilization,  248. 

yields,  249. 

Jerusalem  artichoke,  595. 
Johnson-grass,  244,  247. 

adaptations,  245. 

agricultural  history,  244. 

botany,  244. 

poisonous  qualities,  246. 

utilization,  245. 

Kafir  corn,  271. 
Kale,  592,  594. 
diseases,  594. 
Kentucky  blue-grass,  154,  163. 


Kidney  vetch,  566. 
Knife  bean,  550. 
Kudzu,  .563. 
Kursk  millet,  290. 

Laria  pisorum,  452. 
Lathyrus  cicera,  484. 

ochrus,  484. 

sativus,  454. 

silvestris,  565. 

tingitanus,  482. 
Legumes,  definition,  15. 

dependence  on  root  nodules,  19. 
Lemma,  14. 
Lespedeza,  539. 
Lespedeza  striata,  539. 
Ligule,  14. 

Lime,    effects  on   Kentucky    blue- 
grass,  159. 

effects  on  red  clover,  376. 

effects  on  soybeans,  529. 

effects  on  timothy,  134. 

effects  on  vetch,  465. 
Local  seed,  superiority  of,  69. 
Lodicule,  14. 
Lolium  multiflorum,  211,  214,  215. 

perenne,  211. 

temulentum,  211. 
Loss  of  hay  or  fodder  in  the  field, 

32. 
Loss  of  substance  in  growing  plants, 

34. 
Lotus  americanus,  439. 

corniculatus,  568. 

tetragonolobus,  489. 

uliginosus,  569. 
Lucern,  see  Alfalfa. 

sand,  315. 
Lupines,  487. 
Lupinus,  487. 
Lyon  bean,  545. 

Macrosporium  sarcinseforme,  358. 
Manihot  utilissima,  597. 
Market  demands,  53. 
Maturity  of  plants  in  relation  to 

chemical  composition,  58. 
Meadow,  definition  of,  4. 
Meadow  brome,  233. 


608 


INDEX 


Meadow  fescue,  204-209. 
adaptations,  205. 
agricultural  history,  204. 
botany,  204. 
characteristics,  205. 
hay,  207. 
hybrids,  209. 
importance,  206. 
pasture  value,  209. 
pests,  209. 
seed,  208. 
seeding,  206. 
seed-production,  207. 
Meadow  foxtail,  227-229. 
adaptations,  228. 
characteristics,  227. 
culture,  228. 
seed,  228. 

Meadow-grass,  Fowl,  167. 
Rough-stalked,  169. 
Wood,  170. 
Meadow  mixtures,  92. 
Meadow  oat-grass,  189. 
Meadow  soft-grass,  232. 
Meadows,     composition     of     mix- 
tures, 95. 

fertilizers  for,  97-102. 
pasturing  of,  108. 
reseeding  old,  96. 
scarifying  old,  96. 
topdressing,  102. 
treatment  of,  96. 
Meadows  and  pastures,  92-112. 
Means-grass,  244. 
Medicago  arabica,  437. 
falcata,  313. 
hispida,  437. 
lupulina,  435. 
orbicularis,  437. 
sativa,  305-360. 
scutellata,  437. 
Medick,  see  Alfalfa. 
Medick,  Black,  435. 
Meibomia  tortuosa,  548. 
Melanoplus  bivittatus,  359. 

differentialis,  359. 
Melilot,  Official,  424. 
Siberian,  417. 
Sweet,  417. 


White,  417, 
Yellow,  424. 
Melilotus  alba,  417. 
altissima,  424. 
ccerulea,  424. 
gracilis,  424. 
indica,  425. 
officinalis,  424. 
parviflora,  425. 
speciosa,  424. 
Mesquite,  232. 
Mexican  clover,  571. 
Midge,  sorghum,  277. 
Mildew,  Downy,  398. 

Powdery,  398. 
Millet,  285-298. 

Broom-corn,  285,  295,  298. 
Finger,  286,  297. 
Foxtail,  285,  286-294. 
Hog,  285. 

Japanese  barnyard,  286,  294. 
Pearl,  286,  300-303. 
Shama,  296. 
statistics,  118,  119. 
Texas,  297. 
Milo,  272. 
Mixtures,     compared    with    single 

grasses  (yields),  94. 
meadow,  92,  95. 
pasture,  105. 
with  alfalfa,  94,  95,  342. 
with  alsike,  95. 
with  brome-grass,  94,  202. 
with  cowpeas,  504,  506. 
with  fowl  meadow-grass,  95,  168. 
with  Italian  rye-grass,  95. 
with  Kentucky  blue-grass,  158. 
with  oats,  448. 
with  orchard-grass,  94,  186. 
with  peas,  448. 
with  rape,  590. 
with  red  clover,  94,  377. 
with  redtop,  94,  95. 
with  slender  wheat-grass,  221. 
with  sorghum,  275. 
with  soybeans,  529. 
with  Sudan-grass,  282. 
with  tall  oat-grass,  94,  191,  194. 
with  timothy,  94,  95. 


INDEX 


609 


Mixtures,  —  Continued. 

with  vetch,  473,  474. 

with  yellow  trefoil,  437. 
Moth  bean,  551. 
Mung  bean,  551. 
Murgantia  histrionica,  592. 
Mustard,  white,  594. 


Natal-grass,  258. 

Net  energy  values,  62. 

Nitrogen-free  extract,  56. 

Nodule  organism,  16. 

Nodules,  root,  see  Root  nodules. 

Nonesuch,  435. 

Number  of  seed  in  pound,  80-82. 

Nurse  crops,  90. 

for  alfalfa,  329. 
Nutrients,  digestible,  59-62. 

Oat-grass,  yellow,  234. 

false,  189. 

tall,  189-195. 

tall  meadow,  189. 
Ochrus,  484. 
Onobrychis  sativa,  559. 

vicisefolia,  559. 
Opuntia,  572. 
Orchard-grass,  176-188. 

adaptations  to  shade,  178. 

advantages    and    disadvantages, 
179. 

agricultural  history,  177. 

botany,  176. 

climatic  adaptations,  178. 

description,  176. 

feed  value,  187. 

harvesting  for  hay,  181. 

harvesting  for  seed,  183. 

importance,  180. 

improvement  by  selection,  188. 

life  history,  181. 

mixtures,  186. 

pasturage  value,  187. 

pests,  188. 

seed,  184. 

seeding,  180. 

soil  preferences,  178. 

source  of  seed,  185. 

2R 


utilization  of  stubble  and  after- 
math, 186. 

value  as  a  soil  binder,  188. 

variability,  179. 

weeds,  183. 

yields  of  hay,  182. 
Oregon  pea,  551. 
Ornithopus  sativus,  488. 
Overlook  bean,  550. 
Ozonium  omnivorum,  356. 

Pacey's  rye-grass,  215. 
Pachymerus  chinensis,  511. 

quadrimaculatus,  511. 
Palatability  of  pasture  grasses,  104. 
Palea,  14. 
Panicum  barbinode,  253. 

maximum,  254. 

miliaceum,  285. 

texanum,  297. 
Para-grass,  253,  254. 
Paspalum,  251-253. 
Paspalum  dilatatum,  251-253. 
Pasture,    acreage    of,  improved   in 
United  States,  102. 

area  of   wild,   in  United  States, 
102. 

definition,  4. 

grasses,  palatability  of,  104. 

mixtures,  105. 

plants,  most  important,  103. 

yield,  104-105. 
Pasture  value  of  alfalfa,  344. 

of  alsike,  410. 

of  Bermuda-grass,  240-242. 

of  brome-grass,  202. 

of  Canada  blue-grass,  166. 

of  common  vetch,  462. 

of  crimson  clover,  432. 

of  hairy  vetch,  472. 

of  Kentucky  blue-grass,  157. 

of  lespedeza,  542. 

of  meadow  fescue,  209. 

of  orchard-grass,  187. 

of  peanuts,  547. 

of  peas,  448. 

of  red  clover,  384. 

of  redtop,  172. 

of  sorghum,  276. 


610 


INDEX 


Pasture  value,  —  Continued. 

of  timothy,  139. 

of  white  clover,  413. 
Pastures,  meadows  and,  92-112. 

for  hogs,  109-111. 

temporary,  109. 
Pasturing  meadows,  108. 
Pea,  441-453. 

adaptations,  443. 

Arthur,  444. 

Blackeye  Marrowfat,  444. 

botany,  441. 

Canadian  Beauty,  444. 

Chickasaw,  551. 

description,  442. 

development,  447. 

Early  Britain,  445. 

Flat,  565. 

Golden  Vine,  444. 

hay,  447. 

history,  441. 

importance,  443. 

irrigation,  449. 

Marrowfat,  444. 

oats  and,  448. 

Oregon,  551. 

pasture  value,  448. 

Prussian  Blue,  445. 

seed,  451. 

seeding,  446. 

seed-production,  449. 

square-pod,  489. 

varieties,  443-445. 

weevil,  452. 

Wisconsin  Blue,  445. 
Peanut,  546-548. 
Pearl  millet,  286,  300. 
Pearson  bean,  550. 
Pencillaria,  300. 
Penicillaria,  300. 
Pennisetum  glaucum,  286,  300. 
Pentosans,  56. 
Perch,  26. 
Perennial  rye-grass,  211-215. 

adaptations,  212. 

agricultural  history,  211. 

agricultural  varieties,  212. 

botany,  211. 

characteristics,  211. 


culture,  213. 

hay  yields,  213. 

importance,  212. 

name,  211. 

seed,  214. 

seed-production,  214. 
Peronospora  trifoliorum,  398. 
Petit  gazon,  250. 
Phalaris  arundinacea,  230-232. 

canariensis,  300. 
Phaseolus  aconitifolius,  553. 

angularis,  554. 

aureus,  551. 

mungo,  552. 
Phleum  alpinum,  122. 

pratense,  122. 
Phytonomus  murinus,  359. 

punctatus,  402. 
Pieris  rapse,  592. 
Pigeon  bean,  479. 
Pigeon-grass,  353. 
Pindar,  546. 
Pisum  arvense,  441. 

hortense,  441. 

sativum,  441. 
Plantago  lanceolata,  579. 
Plant-bug,  harlequin,  592. 
Plasmodiophora  brassicae,  595. 
Plumpness  of  seed,  12. 
Poa  arachnifera,  166. 

compressa,  163. 

flava,  167. 

nemoralis,  170. 

pratensis,  154. 

serotina,  167. 

triflora,  167. 

trivialis,  169. 
Poisoning  by  Johnson  grass,  246. 

by  millet,  293. 

by  sorghum,  276. 
Pollination,  alfalfa,  348. 

cowpea,  506. 

hairy  vetch,  472. 

red  clover,  387. 

soybean,  533. 

white  clover,  415. 
Polygqnum  sachalinense,  578. 
Polyth'rincium  trifolii,  398. 
Preservation  of  forage,  21-46. 


INDEX 


611 


Prickly  pear,  572. 

Proso,  285. 

Protein,  56. 

Pseudomonas  medicaginis,  357. 

radicicola,  16. 
Pseudopeziza  medicaginis,  357. 

trifolii,  398. 

Pueraria  thunbergiana,  563. 
Pulses,  15. 

Purity  of  seed,  68,  72. 
Purslane,  571. 
Pussley,  571. 

Quack  grass,  353. 
Quality  of  seed,  67. 

Rabbits,  injury  by,  535. 

Racehorse-grass,  244. 

Rachilla,  14. 

Ragi,  286. 

Ranges,  5. 

Rape,  Dwarf  Essex,  589. 

Dwarf  Victoria,  589. 
'  importance,  589. 

insects,  592. 

mixtures,  590. 

pasturage,  591. 

rotations,  590. 

seeding,  589. 

utilization,  591. 

yields,  592. 
Rate  of  seeding,  85 

(also  see  Seeding). 
Red  clover,  361-404. 

agricultural  history,  361. 

botany,  361. 

breeding,  403. 

climatic  relations,  364. 

clover-flower  midge,  402. 

clover-hay  worm,  403. 

clover-leaf  weevil,  402. 

clover-seed  chalcis  fly,  402. 

color  of  seed,  393. 

composition   at   different   stages, 
381. 

cuttings,  number  of,  381. 

cuttings,  value  of  different,  384. 

disease-resistant  strains,  404. 

diseases,  398. 


distribution,  362. 

effects  of  gypsum,  376. 

effects  of  lime,  376. 

fecundation,  387. 

feeding  value,  383-384. 

fertilizers,  374-376. 

field  treatment,  374. 

flowers,  385. 

flowers,  proportion  of,  397. 

green    weight    relation    to    dry 

weight,  382. 
gypsum,  effects  of,  376. 
harvesting  seed  crop,  389. 
hay  yields,  382. 
importance,  362. 
improvement,  403. 
insects,  401. 
irrigation,  376. 
leaves,  proportion  of,  397. 
life  period,  365. 
lime,  effects  of,  376. 
Mammoth,  366. 
Medium,  366. 
mixtures,  377. 

number  of  seeds  on  head,  385. 
Orel,  367. 
pasturage,  384. 
pollination,  387. 
regional  strains,  367. 
root-borer,  401. 
roots,  394-397. 
roots,  proportion  of,  396. 
rotations,  377-378. 
Russian,  367. 
seed  color,  393. 
seed  yields,  390. 
seed-crop,  harvesting,  389. 
seed-crop,  statistics,  391. 
seeding,  depth,  373. 
seeding  rate,  370. 
seeding  time,  369. 
seeding  with  a  nurse-crop,    371. 
seeding  without  a  nurse-crop,  373. 
seedlings,  371. 
seed-production,  387. 
seeds,  391-394. 
shade,  effect  of,  365. 
shoots,  395-396. 
shoots,  proportion  of,  396. 


612 


INDEX 


Red  Clover,  —  Continued. 

sickness,  398-401. 

silage,  385. 

soil  relations,  363. 

soiling,  384. 

stage  to  cut,  380. 

statistics  of  seed  crop,  391. 

stems,  proportion  of,  396. 

straw,  391. 

varieties,  366-368.       - 

volunteer  crops,  379. 

winter-killing,  374. 

yields  of  hay,  382. 

yields  of  seed,  390. 
Redtop,  adaptations,  171. 

agricultural  history,  171. 

Australian,  258. 

botany,  170. 

characteristics,  172. 

culture,  173. 

Hawaiian,  258. 

importance,  172. 

names,  170-175. 

regional  strains,  173. 

seed,  175. 

seed  production,  174. 

variability,  173. 

yield  of  hay,  174. 
Reed  canary-grass,  230. 
Reed  fescue,  210. 
Rescue-grass,  256. 
Reseeding  old  meadows,  96. 
Respiration  calorimeter,  62. 
Rhizoctonia  violacea,  398. 
Ribbon-grass,  230. 
Richardsonia  scabra,  571. 
Robertson  mixture,  43. 
Root  crops,  3,  583. 

comparison  of  different,  586. 

comparison  with  corn,  588. 

comparison  with  sorghum,  588. 

importance,  584. 

kinds,  585. 

Root  forage,  statistics,  120. 
Rootknot,  511,  536. 
Root-maggot,  592. 
Root  nodules,  description,  16. 

forms  of,  17. 

importance  of,  19. 


Root-rot,  356. 

Roots,  alfalfa,  320,  325. 

brome,  197. 

cowpea,  510. 

Kentucky  blue-grass,  158. 

orchard-grass,  188. 

red  clover,  394-397. 

redtop,  172. 

sainfoin,  559. 

sorghum,  263. 

sweet  clover,  421. 

timothy,  142,  143. 
Rootstocks,  alfalfa,  323. 

Bermuda-grass,  242. 
Rotations,  with  alfalfa,  343. 

with  common  vetch,  463. 

with  hairy  vetch,  473. 

with  rape,  590. 

with  red  clover,  377. 

with  soybeans,  530. 
Roughage,  3. 
Rough  cock's-foot,  176. 
Roughness,  see  Roughage. 
Rough-stalked  meadow  grass,  169, 
Rowen,  4,  102. 
Rye-grass,  Argentine,  215. 

Bailly's,  215. 

English,  211. 

Italian,  see  Italian  rye-grass. 

Pacey's,  215. 

perennial,  211,  215. 

Rieffel's,  215. 

short-seeded,  215. 

Westernwolth,  215,  218. 

Saccharum  officinarum,  247. 
Sachaline,  578. 
Sainfoin,  559-562. 

agricultural  history,  569. 

American  data,  561. 

culture,  560. 

description,  559. 

seed,  561. 

Spanish,  562. 
Sampling  of  seed,  75. 
Sanguisorba  minor,  578. 
Schabdar,  434. 
Schrader's  brome-grass,  256. 
Sclerotinia  trifoliorum,  398. 


INDEX 


613 


Scotch-grass,  237. 
Seed  inspection,  74. 
Seeding,  adzuki,  555. 

alfalfa,  326-329. 

alsike  clover,  419. 

Bermuda- grass,  241. 

brome-grass,  197—198. 

bur  clover,  439. 

common  vetch,  459-461. 

cost  of,  52. 

cowpeas,  498-500. 

crimson  clover,  429. 

depth  of,  88. 

experimental  results,  89. 

field  peas,  446. 

Florida  beggarweed,  548. 

hairy  vetch,  469-471. 

in  practice,  83. 

Italian  rye-grass,  216. 

Kentucky  blue-grass,  158. 

lespedeza,  541. 

meadow  fescue,  206. 

millet,  291. 

moth  bean,  554. 

mung  bean,  552. 

old  meadows,  96. 

orchard  grass,  180. 

peanuts,  547. 

perennial  rye-grass,  213. 

rape,  589. 

rate  of,  85. 

red  clover,  369-373. 

redtop,  173. 

sainfoin,  560. 

slender  wheat-grass,  219. 

sorghum,  267-268. 

soybeans,  522-523. 

Sudan-grass,  280. 

sweet  clover,  419. 

tall  oat-grass,  192. 

time  of,  86. 

timothy,  128-132. 

velvet  bean,  545. 

white  clover,  413. 
Seed-production,  alfalfa,  346. 

alsike  clover,  409. 

Bermuda-grass,  243. 

brome-grass,  210. 

common  vetch,  465. 


cowpea,  506. 
crimson  clover,  433. 
hairy  vetch,  474. 
Italian  rye-grass,  218. 
lespedeza,  543. 
Kentucky  blue-grass,  161. 
meadow  fescue,  207. 
millet,  foxtail,  293. 
orchard-grass,  183. 
peas,  449-451. 
perennial  rye-grass,  214. 
red  clover,  387. 
redtop,  174. 
soybean,  531. 
Sudan-grass,  283. 
sweet  clover,  423. 
tall  oat-grass,  192. 
timothy,  140. 
Seeds,  actual  value  of,  69. 
adulteration  of,  71. 
age  of,  72. 
alfalfa,  349-350. 
alsike  clover,  409. 
brome-grass,  201. 
Canada  blue-grass,  164. 
color  of,  72. 
common  vetch,  466. 
cowpea,  495,  508. 
crimson  clover,  433. 
fungous  diseases  of,  75. 
genuineness  of,  67. 
guaranteed,  75. 
hairy  vetch,  476. 
hard,  76. 

Italian  rye-grass,  218. 
Kentucky  blue-grass,  162. 
meadow  fescue,  208. 
meadow  foxtail,  228. 
millet,  foxtail,  293. 
misbranding  of,  71. 
number  to  pound,  80,  82. 
orchard- grass,  184. 
perennial  rye-grass,  214. 
plumpness  of,  72. 
production  of  forage  crop,  83. 
purity  of,  68. 
quality  of,  67. 
red  clover,  391-393. 
red  fescue,  226. 


614 


INDEX 


Seeds,  —  Continued. 

redtop,  175. 

sampling  of,  75. 

sheep's  fescue,  226. 

sorghum,  269. 

source  of,  73. 

soybean,  534. 

standards  of  germination,  70. 

standards  of  purity,  70. 

superiority  of  local,  69-. 

sweet  clover,  424. 

tall  oat-grass,  194. 

timothy,  127. 

viability  of,  68. 

weed,  78. 

weight  of,  78-80. 

white  clover,  416. 
Seeds  and  seeding,  67-91. 
Serradella,  488. 
Setaria  italica,  285,  286. 
Shaftal,  434. 
Shama  millet,  296. 
Sheep's  fescue,  223-226. 

culture,  225. 

importance,  225. 

seeding,  226. 
Shrinkage  of  hay,  29. 
Siberian  melilot,  417. 
Siberian  millet,  290. 
Silage,  39. 

advantages  of,  41. 

alfalfa,  345. 

crops  for,  42. 

definition,  3. 

fermentation,  40-41. 

millet,  292. 

rape,  591. 

red  clover,  385. 

sorghum,  275. 

soybean,  530. 

summer,  40. 

sweet  clover,  422. 

vetch,  465,  471. 
Silos,  39. 
Sipha  flava,  278. 
Slender  wheat-grass,  219. 
Snail  clover,  437. 
Soilage,  see  Soiling. 
Soiling,  45. 


alfalfa,  345. 

crimson  clover,  432. 

definition,  3. 

penicillaria,  301. 

rape,  591. 

red  clover,  384. 

sorghum,  274. 

systems,  44. 
Soja  bean,  see  Soybean. 
Soja  max,  515. 
Sorghum,  260-284. 

adaptations,  262. 

agricultural  groups,  263. 

agricultural  history,  261. 

agricultural  varieties,  269. 

Amber,  270. 

aphis,  278. 

blight,  277. 

botany,  260. 

broadcasting,  268. 

comparison  with  root  crops,  588. 

culture,  266. 

diseases,  277. 

Durra,  273. 

Feterita,  272. 

fodder,  274. 

Gooseneck,  271. 

hay,  275. 

head  smut,  277. 

Honey,  271. 

importance,  266. 

improvement,  278. 

insects,  277. 

Kafir  or  Kafir  Corn,  271. 

kernel  smut,  277. 

legume  mixtures  with,  275. 

midge,  277. 

Milo,  272. 

number  of  cuttings,  268. 

Orange,  270. 

pasture  value,  276. 

Planter,  270. 

poisoning,  276. 

Red  Amber,  270. 

root  system,  263. 

seed,  269. 

seeding  in  rows,  267. 

soilage,  274. 

Sudan  Durra,  272. 


INDEX 


615 


Sorghum,  —  Continued. 

Sumac,  271. 

time  of  sowing,  267. 

utilization,  274. 

yield  of  forage,  269. 
Sour  clover,  425. 
Source  of  seed,  73. 
Soybeans,  513-538. 

agricultural  history,  513. 

botany,  514. 

breeding,  536. 

climatic  adaptations,  517. 

compared  with  cowpeas,  536. 

cultivation,  521. 

cutting,  time  of,  527. 

depth  of  seeding,  523. 

description,  516. 

desirable  characters,  518. 

feeding  value,  531. 

fertilizers,  528. 

Guelph,  520. 

Haberlandt,  519. 

Hollybrook,  519. 

importance,  518. 

inoculation,  524. 

Ito  San,  520. 

life  period,  526. 

Mammoth,  519. 

.  Medium  Yellow,  520. 

methods  of  seeding,  523. 

mixtures,  529. 

Peking,  521. 

pests,  535. 

pollination,  533. 

rate  of  seeding,  522. 

rotations,  530. 

seeding,  522,  523. 

seed  production,  531. 

seeds,  534. 

silage,  530. 

soil  adaptations,  517. 

soil  preparation,  521. 

time  of  seeding,  522. 

varieties,  519. 

Wilson,  521. 

yields,  of  hay,  528. 

yields,  of  seed,  533. 
Spergula  arvensis,  576. 

maxima,  577. 


sativa,  576. 
Sphacelotheca  reiliana,  277. 

sorghi,  277. 
Sphaerotheca  sp.,  511. 
Spontaneous  combustion,  36. 
Spurrey,  576. 
Square-pod  pea,  489. 
Standards  of  germination,  70. 

of  purity,  70. 
Starch  values,  64. 
Statistical    classification    of    forage 

crops,  113-117. 
Statistics,  113-122. 

alfalfa,  118. 

coarse  forage,  118. 

corn,  118. 

cowpeas,  493. 

forage  crops,  8. 

forage  crops  in  Canada,  120-121. 

forage    crops   in    United    States, 
117-120. 

grains  cut  green,  118. 

hay  yields,  37. 

millet,  118-119. 

other      tame      and      cultivated 
grasses,  119,  120. 

pastures,  102. 

peas,  443. 

red  clover,  391,  400. 

root  forage,  120. 

seed  production,  83. 

sorghum,  266. 

timothy,  124,  125. 

timothy  and  clover,  117. 

wild,  salt  or  prairie  grasses,  118. 
Stizolobium  deeringianum,  544. 

hassjoo,  546. 

niveum,  545. 
Stover,  definition,  2. 
Straw,  definition,  3. 
Sudan-grass,  279-284. 

adaptations,  280. 

chemical  analysis,  282. 

culture,  280. 

description,  279. 

hay,  281. 

mixtures,  282. 

seed  production,  283. 

utilization,  281. 


616 


INDEX 


Sugar-cane,  Japanese,  247-249. 

Zwinga,  247. 
Sulla,  562. 
Sunflower,  574. 
Sweet  clover,  417-425. 

adaptations,  418. 

advantages    and    disadvantages, 
422. 

agricultural  history,  419. 

botany,  417. 

description,  417. 

proportion  of  roots  to  tops,  421. 

related  species,  424-425. 

securing  a  stand,  419. 

seed,  424. 

seeding,  419. 

seed-production,  423. 

utilization,  421. 

yield,  422. 
Sweet  melilot,  417. 
Sweet  vernal-grass,  229. 

botany,  229. 

culture,  230. 
Sword  bean,  550. 
Symphytum  asperrimum,  580. 

Tall  fescue,  210. 

Tall  meadow  oat-grass,  189. 

Tall-oat  grass,  189-195. 

Tangier  pea,  482-484. 

Tares,  457. 

temporary    pasture    crop    systems, 

109-111. 

temporary  pastures,  109. 
Teosinte,  303. 
Texas  blue-grass,  166-167. 
Texas  millet,  297. 
therms,  62. 

Thousand-headed  kale,  592. 
Tick  bean,  479. 
time  of  seeding,  86. 

alfalfa,  328. 

common  vetch,  460. 

cowpeas,  499. 

crimson  clover,  430. 

hairy  vetch,  460. 

red  clover,  369. 

sorghum,  276. 

soybeans,  522,. 


Timothy,  122-153. 

advantage  of,  126. 

agricultural  history,  123. 

agricultural  importance,  124. 

botany,  122. 

breeding  of,  149-150. 

chemical  analyses,  58-59. 

climatic  adaptations,  125. 

comparison    of    vegetative    and 
seed  progeny,  152. 

depth  of  seeding,  130. 

desirable  types  of,  151. 

disease  resistance,  148. 

diseases  affecting,  146. 

feeding  value,  144. 

fertilizers,  133. 

heavy  vs.  light  seeds,  129. 

improved  strains,  153. 

in  rotation,  127. 

insects  injurious  to,  146. 

irrigation,  134. 

life  history,  141. 

life  period,  142. 

lime,  effect  of,  134. 

method  of  seeding,  130. 

mixtures,  94,  95. 

pasture  value,  139. 

pollination,  140. 

proportion  of  roots  to  tops,  143. 

rate  of  seeding,  129. 

regional  strains,  143. 

roots,  depth  of,  142. 

seed,  127. 

seed-bed,  128,  132. 

seed-production,  140. 

soil  adaptations,  126. 

soil  preparation,  128,  132. 

time  to  cut,  136. 

variability  of,  147. 

weight  of  seeds,  129. 

yield  of  hay,  138. 
topinambur,  595. 
Trefoil,  bird's-foot,  568. 

white,  411. 

yellow,  435. 
Tricholaena  rosea,  258. 
Trifolium  alexandrinum,  434 

elegans,  406. 

fistulosum,  405, 


INDEX 


617 


Trifolium,  —  Continued. 

hybridum,  405. 

incarnatum,  426. 

pannonicum,  410. 

repens,  411. 

suaveolens,  434. 
Trisetum  flavescens,  234. 
Tufted  vetch,  481. 
Tunis-grass,  260,  263. 

Ulex  europseus,  570. 
Upright  brome,  233. 
Urd,  552. 
Uromyces  phaseoli,  511. 

striatus,  358,  398. 
Urophlyctis  alfalfae,  356. 
Ustilago  crameri,  294. 

Velvet  bean,  Florida,  544. 

description,  544. 

history,  544. 

utilization,  544. 
Velvet  grass,  232. 
Vernal  grass,  sweet,  229. 
Vetch,  bird,  481. 

Bitter,  478. 

Black  bitter,  478. 

Chickling,  454. 

Common,  457. 

comparison  of  species,  485. 

Dakota,  439. 

English,  457. 

Gray,  459. 

Hairy,  467. 

Kidney,  566. 

Narbonne,  479. 

Narrow-leaved,  477. 

Oregon,  457. 

Pearl,  458. 

Purple,  477. 

Russian,  467. 

Sand,  467. 

Sardinian,  459. 

Scarlet,  478. 

Siberian,  467. 

Smooth,  457. 

Tufted,  481. 

Villose,  467. 


White-seeded,  458. 

Winter,  467. 

Woolly-pod,  478. 
Vetchling,  454. 

flat-podded,  484. 
Viability  of  seed,  68. 
Vicia  angustifolia,  477. 

atropurpurea,  477. 

cracca,  481. 

dasycarpa,  478. 

ervilia,  478. 

faba,  479. 

fulgens,  478. 

hirsuta,  481. 

narbonnensis,  479. 

sativa,  457. 

tetrasperma,  481. 

villosa,  467. 
Vigna  sinensis,  491. 

Wall-barley,  354. 

Water-grass,  251. 

Weed  seeds,  78. 

Weeds,  in  alfalfa,  78,  352-354. 

in  clover,  78. 

in  crimson  clover,  434. 

in  Kentucky  blue-grass,  163. 

in  Lespedeza,  78. 

in  orchard-grass,  183. 

most  dangerous,  78. 
Weevil,  cowpea,  511. 
Weight,  relation  of  green  to  dry,  32 

of  seeds,  78. 

Western  wheat-grass,  221. 
Wheat-grass,  slender,  219. 

western,  221. 
White  clover,  411-417. 

adaptations,  412. 

agricultural  history,  412. 

botany,  411. 

description,  411. 

importance,  413. 

Ladino,  416. 

pollination,  415. 

seed,  416. 

seeding,  413. 

seed  production,  415. 

yields,  414. 
White  melilot,  417. 


618 


INDEX 


White  trefoil,  411. 
Wilt,  cowpea,  511. 
Windsor  bean,  479. 
Wire-grass,  237. 
Wonder  bean,  550. 
Wood  meadow-grass,  170. 
Woolly  pyrol,  552. 

Yarrow,  577. 
Yellow  oat-grass,  234. 
Yellow  trefoil,  435. 
Yielding  capacity,  49. 
Yields  of  hay,  alfalfa,  94,  118,  119, 
319,  339. 

alsike  clover,  119,  408. 

Bermuda-grass,  119,  242. 

Canada  blue-grass,  165. 

common  vetch,  462. 

cowpeas,  119,  502. 

crab-grass,  119. 

crimson  clover,  432. 

fowl  meadow-grass,  168. 

hairy  vetch,  472. 

Italian  rye-grass,  217. 

Japanese  cane,  249. 

Johnson-grass,  119. 

Kentucky  blue-grass,  119,  160. 

kidney  vetch,  567. 

kudzu,  564. 

Ladino  white  clover,  417. 

Lespedeza,  543. 

millets,  118,  119,  295. 

moth  bean,  553. 

orchard-grass,  119,  182. 

pastures,  104. 

peas,  119,  447. 

perennial  rye-grass,  213. 

prairie-grass,  118. 


red  clover,  94,  119,  382-383. 

redtop,  94,  174. 

sainfoin,  562. 

salt-grass,  118. 

sorghum,  269. 

soybeans,  528. 

spurrey,  577. 

sweet  clover,  422. 

tall  oat-grass,  94. 

timothy,  94,  119,  138. 

under  irrigation,  52. 

white  clover,  415. 

wild  grass,  118,  119. 
Yields  of  seed,  alfalfa,  347. 

alsike  clover,  409. 

Bermuda-grass,  243. 

Canada  blue-grass,  165. 

common  vetch,  466. 

cowpeas,  507. 

crimson  clover,  433. 

guar,  557. 

hairy  vetch,  475,  476. 

jack  beans,  550. 

kidney  vetch,  567. 

Lespedeza,  544. 

millet,  293. 

peas,  450. 

red  clover,  391. 

sorghum,  273. 

soybeans,  533. 

spurrey,  577. 

Sudan  grass,  283. 

sweet  clover,  423. 

yellow  trefoil,  437. 
Yokohama  bean,  546. 
Yorkshire  fog,  232. 

Zwinga  sugar  cane,  247» 


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